J.P. Lanly
Jean-Paul Lanly is Director of the Forest Resources Division of the FAO Forestry Department.
Ed. note: This is the first in a series of articles considering the implications and possible impacts of UNCED on forestry at global, regional, national and local levels. Feedback from readers is actively solicited.
An overview of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development with a focus on forestry issues.
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3-14 June 1992, had an overall aim 'to lay the foundation for a global partnership between developing and more industrialized countries, based on mutual need and common interests, to ensure the future of the planet" (Maurice Strong. UNCED Secretary-General). With an attendance of more than 40 000 people, including more than 100 heads of state and government, UNCED was the largest global summit ever to have been held.
After an introductory section dealing with the background to and preparations for the conference, this article presents the treatment of forestry in the main relevant texts approved and decisions taken by UNCED: the Rio Declaration the 'forest principles", the framework convention on climate, the framework convention on biodiversity and the relevant components of "Agenda 21". Financial and institutional arrangements as well as the UNCED discussions concerning transfer of technology are also discussed.
Awareness of the need for environmental protection and the sustainable use of natural resources for development has grown steadily over the past decades. The first major world manifestation of environmental awareness was the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in June 1972. The establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was a direct outcome of the Stockholm conference, and many governments created Ministries of the Environment at that time. Another milestone in the road to Rio" was the publication in 1987 of the report entitled Our common future, by the World Commission on Environment and Development. Known as the Brundtland Commission after its chairwoman, the Norwegian Prime Minister, Our common future helped define humanity's future relationship with the environment, a relationship encapsulated in the concept of sustainable development.
In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
Principle 4, Rio Declaration
At its 44th session in 1989 the United Nations General Assembly, recalling the declaration of the Stockholm conference as well as the Brundtland Commission's report and recognizing the continuing global degradation of the environment, issued Resolution 44/228 for the purpose of convening UNCED in June 1992 in Brazil. The conference was expected to "elaborate strategies and measures to halt and reverse the effects of environmental degradation in the context of strengthened national and international efforts to promote sustainable and environmentally sound development in all countries".
The preamble to Resolution 44/228 dwells at length on the essential prerequisites of economic growth and an international economic climate favourable to environmental protection. It reaffirms each state's sovereignty over its resources as well as its responsibility for transboundary damages. It recalls the specific responsibility of industrialized countries for pollution and developing countries' difficulties arising from external debt. Finally, it emphasizes the need for enhanced cooperation, particularly between developed and developing countries, in research and development and in the use of appropriate technologies. The importance and frequency of forestry-related concepts in the resolution immediately set forestry as a top priority at UNCED.
Serving as a mechanism for organizing the conference, Resolution 44/228 established a Preparatory Committee that was open to all UN member countries. After an organizational session in March 1990 in New York, the Preparatory Committee held a further four working sessions: 6-31 August 1990 in Nairobi; 18 March-5 April 1991 in Geneva; 12 August-4 September 1991 in Geneva; and 2 March-3 April 1992 in New York. These preparatory meetings were the venue for discussions and basic agreements on all of the main results expected from UNCED, namely:
· an Earth charter: a non-legally binding document defining the major principles governing nations with regard to environmental protection and sustainable development (at its final session, the Preparatory Committee decided to change the name of the Earth charter to the Rio Declaration):· conventions and other agreements on environmental and development subjects to be approved and signed by states during the conference (specifically the forest principles', the framework convention on climate and the framework convention on biodiversity);
· Agenda 21, constituting the operational platform, until the year 2000 and beyond, for the international community in all major areas related to the environment and sustainable development;
· additional financial resources to assist developing countries in implementing UNCED decisions, particularly the various components of Agenda 21;
· procedures for and means of technology transfer in all areas related to the conference in order to enable developing countries to overcome constraints to environmentally sound and sustainable development;
· international institutional provisions, particularly within the UN system, to facilitate implementation of Agenda 21 and other conference decisions.
... The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command.
Principle 7, Rio Declaration
The conference opened at Riocentro, on the outskirts of Rio de Janeiro, after a two-day organizational meeting to discuss procedural mechanisms. The ministerial segment of the conference, comprising discussions by the Main Committee and a number of informal, open-ended contact groups, took place from 3-11 June. This portion of the conference was also marked by interventions in a Plenary Committee by governments, international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other groups, including a statement by the Director-General of FAO.
Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level...States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely available...
Principle 10. Rio Declaration
The summit segment of UNCED - in which 102 heads of state and government took the floor was held from 12-13 June. The closing session on 14 June was capped by interventions by Maurice Strong, the Conference Secretary-General; UN Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali; and the President of Brazil, Fernando Collor de Mello.
The Rio Declaration
The Rio Declaration contains 27 general principles "proclaimed" by UNCED to guide states and people, in "a new and equitable global partnership", in the broad field of environment and development anti in all related policies and programmes. Some of the principles provide general prerequisites for action: human beings at the centre of concern (principle 1): the right to development (principle 3), and the essential task of eradicating poverty (principle 5). Others deal with the sovereign right of countries to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies (principle 2); the need to give priority to the special situation of the developing countries (principle 6): the responsibility of developed countries in the international pursuit of sustainable development (principle 7); the need for international consensus on environmental measures addressing global environmental problems (principle 12); the spirit of partnership of states and people in the overall fulfilment of the principles (principle 27) as well as in the strengthening of national capacities for sustainable development (principle 9).
The objectives of sustainability are stressed in several principles: environmental protection as an integral part of the development process (principle 4); the need to reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption (principle 8); the need to adopt effective and appropriate environmental legislation and standards (principle 11); and the need to undertake environmental impact assessments at the national level (principle 7).
Trade policy measures for environmental purposes should not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade. Unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing country should be avoided...
Principle 12, Rio Declaration
The need to involve all groups of people, each at the relevant level (principle 10), including women (principle 20), youth (principle 21) and indigenous people and other local communities (principle 22), is clearly expressed.
Although the principles of the Rio Declaration are not intended to provide detailed recipes for institutional arrangements regarding any specific sector or effort, they provide a useful general guide. It was the express opinion of the conference that the Rio Declaration should be further elaborated and presented as an Earth charter at the 50th anniversary of the UN in 1995.
Forest principles
The idea of adopting international principles on the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests originated in the proposal made in June 1990 by the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (subsequently renamed the Tropical Forests Action Programme) independent review mission for an international convention on forests. It was also implicit in the request made by the UNCED Preparatory Committee at its first session in August 1990, that the Secretary-General of the Conference submit alternatives for national, regional and international coordination of forest activities.
Indigenous people and their communities, and other local communities, have a vital role in environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional practices. States should recognize and duly support their identity, culture and interests and enable their effective participation in the achievement of sustainable development.
Principle 22, Rio Declaration
Although there was early agreement on the need to formulate principles applicable to all the forests of the world and on the choice of the UNCED preparatory process required to formulate these principles, consensus still had to be reached on their final form and content. After extensive background work by the UNCED secretariat, assisted by FAO, the final meeting of the Preparatory Committee submitted a "non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global consensus on the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests". The forest principles are the result of long and protracted discussions held throughout the preparatory process of UNCED and until the very end of the conference itself. As stated in the Preamble, they reflect a first global consensus on forests which countries have decided to "keep under assessment for their adequacy with regard to further international cooperation on forest issues". Countries have committed themselves to their prompt implementation and to 'consider the need for and the feasibility of all kinds of appropriate internationality agreed arrangements to promote international cooperation on forest management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests".
These principles echo most of those embodied in the Rio Declaration but are much more specific and detailed. They point repeatedly to the multiple use of forests and the need for a holistic and balanced view of their conservation and development (Preamble, pares 2b, 3c, 4 6). They define the sovereign right of countries over their forest resources (paras 1a, 2a). They stress that national policies, strategies and priorities should constitute the reference framework for sustainable forest management and use (pares 3a, 8d). international linkages and integration of forest policies with other relevant policies are called for in paragraphs 9c and 13d. Several paragraphs of the statement recommend participation in forest conservation and development by various partners and segments of society: local communities, indigenous people and forest dwellers (pares 2d, 5a); industries, labour, NGOs and individuals (pare. 2d); and women (pares 2d. 5b).
The strengthening of institutional capabilities for the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests and forest lands is repeatedly stressed, either in a general way (pare. 3a); in relation to education, training, research and technology (pare. 12b): or with regard to indigenous and local communities (pare. 12d).
Forests are essential to economic development and the maintenance of all forms of life.
Preamble, forest principles
There is no one subject more emphasized by the forest principles than the need for international cooperation and technical and financial support for the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests. Following a general call for increased international cooperation to support the "agreed full incremental cost of achieving benefits associated with forest conservation and sustainable development" (art. 1, pare. 1b), several recommendations are made to the international community to support developing countries financially, and possibly technically, to enable them to manage, conserve and develop their forest resources in a sustainable manner: in paragraph 8c ("particularly in developing countries"); in general terms in paragraph 9a; with reference to "new and additional financial resources" in paragraph 10; and with reference to "specific financial resources" for those countries establishing conservation programmes in paragraph 7b.
Other recommendations made in the forest principles refer to: the provision and international exchange of information (paras 2c, 12c); research, inventories and assessments (para. 12a); the assessment of forest economic and non-economic values (para. 6c); the role of forests in energy production (para. 6a); the protection of unique examples of forests (para. 8f); access to and the sharing of benefits from genetic resources (para. 8g); and the transfer of biotechnologies and other technologies (paras 8g, 11).
States have the sovereign and inalienable right to utilize, manage and develop their forests in accordance with their development needs and level of socio-economic development and on the basis of national policies consistent with sustainable development and legislation, including the conversion of such areas for other uses within the overall socio-economic development plan and based on rational land-use policies.
Article 2a, forest principles
The adoption of the principles should accentuate the importance of the forest sector in the eyes of decision-makers and public opinion and should also help consolidate support for a balanced approach to forest conservation and development. Use of the forest principles will naturally depend on the decisions taken at the political level, particularly on the appropriateness of an international legal instrument. Their daily application, however, will largely depend on all concerned people and institutions.
Climate change convention
The Framework Convention on Climate Change was opened for signature on 4 June and was signed by 150 countries. It will enter into force after being officially ratified by 50 national governments from
I among the signatories. The convention is designed to achieve the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous human-caused changes in the global climatic system. Such a level would be achieved within a sufficient time frame to allow the natural adaptation of ecosystems to climate change, to ensure that food production would not be threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.
The convention mainly commits countries to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and includes provisions to facilitate arrangements for developing countries. However, no agreement was reached on target levels for emissions, nor on deadlines for reaching targets. Although the convention recognizes the importance of forestry with respect to climate change, it does not deal specifically with this issue, which is likely to be covered in future forest protocols.
Decisions taken on the management, conservation and sustainable development of forest resources should benefit, to the extent practicable, from a comprehensive assessment of economic and non-economic values of forest goods and services and of the environmental costs and benefits...
Article 6c, forest principles
Convention on biodiversity
The Framework Convention on Biodiversity, negotiated through seven sessions of an intergovernmental negotiating committee and approved by a diplomatic conference in Nairobi, Kenya, in May 1992, was opened for signature on 5 June. The convention was signed in Rio de Janeiro by 154 countries and will come into force after national ratification by 30 countries. Its objectives are "the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of appropriate technology...". While underlining the sovereign rights of countries to exploit their own resources, it stresses their responsibility in ensuring that national; activities do not damage the environment of other states, and it calls for signatories to cooperate directly or through international organizations to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity through in situ and ex situ conservation measures.
The implementation of national policies and programmes aimed at forest management, conservation and sustainable development, particularly in developing countries, should be supported by international financial and technical cooperation including through the private sector, where e appropriate.
Article 8c, forest principles
The convention calls for sharing "in a fair and equitable way the results of research and development and the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources with the Contracting Party providing such resources... upon mutually agreed terms ". Great stress is placed on the right of access to technology, with explicit mention of relevant biotechnologies. A financial mechanism, governed by the Conference of Parties, w ill provide financial resources to developing country parties on a grant or concessional basis.
The implications of the biodiversity convention for forestry are significant, particularly in relation to protected areas, in situ and ex conservation of forest and wildlife genetic resources as well as the availability, development and sustainable use of such resources.
Forestry in Agenda 21
Agenda 21 is a comprehensive action plan extending from the present to the year 2000 and beyond. In 500 pages grouped into four volumes (socio-economic aspects; natural resources conservation and management; the role of major [social] groups; and means of implementation), Agenda 21 covers 1 15 programme areas.
Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 is specifically devoted to forestry matters. Although it is entitled Combating deforestation, the chapter is a balanced programme that covers all the priorities of the forestry sector. However, there are activities and aspects related to forests and trees and to forestry in several other sections, particularly chapters: 9 -Protection of the atmosphere; 10 -Integrated approach to the planning and management of land resources; 12 -Managing fragile ecosystems: sustainable mountain development; 14 - Promoting sustainable agriculture and rural development: 15-Conservation of biological diversity; and 16 - Environmentally sound management of technology. Forestry is also concerned with most of the cross-sectoral issues of Section 1, Social and economic dimensions: Section III, Strengthening the role of major groups (women, youth, indigenous people. NGOs, local authorities, workers and trade unions, business and industry, scientific and technological community, farmers): and Section IV, Means of implementation.
Chapter 11 (Combating deforestation) comprises four programme areas:
i) "Sustaining the multiple roles and functions of all types of forests, forest lands and woodlands", i.e. policy and institutional aspects;ii) "Enhancing the protection, sustainable management and conservation of all forests, and the greening of degraded areas, through forest rehabilitation, afforestation, reforestation and other rehabilitative means'', i.e. management, conservation, protection, development and creation of forests;
iii) "Promoting efficient utilisation and assessment to recover the full valuation of the goods and services provided by forests, forest lands and woodlands", i.e. commercial and non-commercial production, processing, trade and marketing;
iv) "Establishing and/or strengthening capacities for the planning, assessment and systematic observations of forests and related programmes, projects and activities, including commercial trade and processes".
The original version of Chapter 11 contained a fifth programme area, entitled International and regional cooperation, and included such activities as the strengthening of the Tropical Forests Action Programme (TFAP), the establishment of a "green fund", the promotion of international forestry research and the international negotiations of forestry agreements. However, the Preparatory Committee decided to distribute the components of this area among the four remaining programme areas. The fact that international and regional cooperation no longer figures as a separate area may be regrettable as it involves existing or potential cooperation mechanisms that cover the whole gamut of forest issues. One of the most important of these mechanisms, if not the most important, the TFAP, is now included under area
ii) with an appeal to all countries, whether tropical or non-tropical, industrialized or developing to formulate and implement national forestry programmes, or plans that mirror TFAP activities of the tropical countries.
As can be imagined, discussions on financial resources for achievement of the goals of UNCED were particularly difficult. For the period 1993-2000, the implementation cost for Agenda 21 had been estimated to be an annual US$625 000 million on average, of which international concessional funding was estimated to be approximately 20 percent, i.e. $125 000 million. By comparison, annual non-military official development assistance (ODA) for all sectors combined currently amounts to approximately $55 000 million.
National policies and/or legislation aimed at management, conservation and sustainable development of forests should include the protection of ecologically viable representatives or unique examples of forests, including primary/old-growth forests, cultural, spiritual, historical, religious and other unique and valued forests of national importance.
Article 8f, forest principles
On the basis of each country's situation, forests, forestry sector, socio-economic development and capacity to absorb international aid, FAO had estimated the annual amounts of total and international funding needed for the period 1993-2000 for the forestry-related activities envisaged under Agenda 21. These two amounts of funding were, respectively, $32 000 million and about $6 180 million for all developing countries.
The second figure is approximately 4.5 times higher than ODA for forestry in 1990. This should not, however, expose the forestry objectives of Agenda 21 to charges of idealism, as FAO surveys have shown that ODA to forestry between 1986 and 1990 increased by an annual average of approximately 16 percent. If this increase were to continue throughout the 1990s, this would mean an average ODA for the reference period 1993-2000 of $3 740 million, compared with the $6 180 million estimated for Agenda 21. In other words, forestry ODA would have to increase annually by 24 percent during the 1990s, instead of by 16 percent as in 1986-90. This objective is not necessarily unattainable, given the international priority assigned to forestry issues.
The problems that hinder efforts to attain the conservation and sustainable use of forest resources and that stem from the lack of alternative options available to local communities, in particular the urban poor and poor rural populations who are economically and socially dependent on forests and forest resources, should be addressed by governments and the international community.
Article 9b, forest principles
UNCED was given the mandate 'to identify ways and means of providing new and additional financial resources, particularly to developing countries, for environmentally sound development programmes, and projects in accordance with national development objectives, priorities and plans", as well as "for measures directed towards solving major environmental problems of global concern", and "to consider various funding mechanisms... and to examine the possibility of a special international fund and other innovative approaches".
It has been agreed that "funding for Agenda 21 and other outcomes of the Conference should be provided in a way which maximizes the availability of new and additional resources and which uses all available funding resources and mechanisms". In this context, it is worth noting the recommendation that the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) be restructured so as to, inter alia,... have sufficient flexibility to expand its scope and coverage to relevant programme areas of Agenda 21 with global environmental benefits". Additional areas to be supported, possibly by the GEF, are afforestation and control of land degradation and desertification.
Although UNCED was not meant to be a pledging conference, several donor countries and organizations did announce additional contributions, part or all of them would support forest programmes, and projects in tropical countries. The EEC indicated that it would increase its annual ODA by $4 000 million. France reaffirmed its commitments to the target of ODA equivalent to 0.7 percent of GNP. Japan would double its annual ODA from about $3 000 million to $7 000 million over the next five years. The Netherlands would reach an ODA equivalent to 0.8 percent of GNP on condition that other countries followed this example. Spain would multiply threefold its present ODA. The United States would contribute a "down payment" on the initiative of doubling current ODA to forestry of $150 million in bilateral assistance for forest conservation next year.
In addition, there were commitments in principle to replenish the International Development Association (IDA) in real terms and to give special consideration to the proposal submitted by the President of the World Bank regarding the addition of an "Earth increment".
New and/or more innovative ways of generating public and private financial resources were encouraged, including: debt swaps, economic and fiscal incentives and mechanisms, tradable permits (in carbon dioxide, for instance) and new schemes for fund raising and voluntary contributions through private channels, including NGOs.
International exchange of information on the results of forest and forest management research and development should be enhanced and broadened, as appropriate, making full use of education and training institutions, including those in the private sector.
Article 12c, forest principles
Technology transfer was among the most important and difficult issues to be negotiated at UNCED. Despite the declared intention of numerous industrialized countries to facilitate the transfer and access of ecologically sound technologies to developing countries, the discussions at the Preparatory Committee sessions and at UNCED itself evidenced, notable differences of opinion on matters such as intellectual property rights (patents), appropriate mechanisms and the possibility of establishing an international code of conduct on technology transfer, as well as on financial aspects. In its final version, the Agenda 21 programme on the transfer of environmentally sound technology stresses cooperation and capacity-building, at an estimated average annual cost (1993-2000) of between $450 million and $600 million.
Chapter 38 of Agenda 21 reviews the role of the various partners in the follow-up to the Conference. It states that: "The intergovernmental follow-up to the Conference process shall be within the framework of the United Nations system, with the General Assembly being the supreme policy-making forum that would provide overall guidance to Governments, United Nations system and relevant treaty bodies. At the same time, Governments, as well as regional economic and, technical cooperation organizations, have a responsibility to play an important role in the follow-up to the Conference. Their commitments and actions should be adequately supported by the United Nations system and multilateral financial institutions. Thus, national and international efforts would mutually benefit from one another".
Chapter 38 also recognizes the importance of 'the continued active and effective participation of Non-Governmental Organizations, the scientific community and the private sector as well as local groups and communities".
Unilateral measures, incompatible with international obligations or agreements, to restrict and/or ban international trade in timber or other forest products should be removed or avoided, in order to attain long-term sustainable forest management.
Article 14, forest principles
In terms of institutional arrangements, the UN General Assembly is designated as the highest policy forum for UNCED follow-up, to be assisted by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The conference recommended that the general Assembly establish a high-level ECOSOC Commission on Sustainable Development "to review and coordinate progress in the implementation of Agenda 21, other UNCED agreements and environmental conventions". The follow-bip process will be assisted by a secretariat support structure and will involve not only the UN system but also other governmental organizations and NGOs.
Given that the vast majority of the planned outcomes of UNCED have long-term horizons, it is difficult and perhaps foolhardy to attempt an overall assessment of the conference less than six months after it was held. In any case, the conference must be evaluated not as an end in itself but as a step toward achieving long-term goals. A number of observations may be made, however. First, the conference was truly unique. Never before have so many heads of state and government met to reach agreement on such a number of areas concerning the future of humankind and the local and global environment. Never before have the preparations for an international conference (or perhaps any other event) gone so far toward sensitizing people in all countries and at all levels to the need for attention to and action on environment and development issues. And never before has such widespread agreement been reached on such an exhaustive and detailed document as Agenda 21. The conference conclusions, and particularly the contents of Agenda 21, will constitute an obligatory and essential point of reference until at least the year 2000 for world, regional and national policies plans and programmes, in al environmental and development areas with particular reference to the forestry sector.
While the various texts approved and decisions taken by UNCED go a long way | toward uniting nations of widely varying living standards in the struggle to harmonize development and environment on a global scale, there was also the disappointment that the initiatives taken were not bolder and that the commitments made (particularly financial commitments) were not larger. UNCED has provided a basis for progress but it is the responsibility of all of us to push forward with renewed energy and increased commitment. It should be clear to all that, as important as the road to Rio has been, what matters more is the road from Rio.
Copies of the documents and agreements produced by UNCED may be obtained through the UNCED Secretariat 160 Route de Florissant. PO Box 80 Ch-1231 Conches, Switzerland.
