The care and management of domesticated Asian elephants in Sri Lanka - Jayantha Jayewardene

Introduction

The Sri Lankan people have had a long association with elephants and as a result a lasting affinity has developed between the two.

The ancient kings of Sri Lanka (the Sinhala kings) captured elephants from the wild where they were found in abundance. These elephants were used for many purposes. They were used for war against invaders from neighbouring India and to lay siege on the Portuguese and the Dutch who had captured the Maritime Provinces of the island. They were also used for ceremonial occasions, which were conducted with much pomp and pageantry. Elephants were given as gifts to the kings and potentates of countries that had friendly relations with the Sinhala kings and with whom they traded. Elephants were sometimes exported for trade to other countries where they were also used for war and ceremonial occasions.

Elephants assisted in the agricultural pursuits of man in earlier times. They assisted in the clearing of jungles for agriculture, hauling logs and clearing the land. They were also used for ploughing some of these lands. The British used them to clear the montane forests on the island to plant tea, cinchona and coffee. They were also used to transport machinery and other heavy goods to the plantations.

Elephants were used to transport material for construction activities in ancient times. For example, the ancient cities of Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, etc, now only their ruins remaining, would not have been built had their giant stones not been moved into place by elephants. They were also used for the construction of the large reservoirs that were the basis of the hydraulic civilization of the country.

However, over time, modern machinery gradually replaced the elephant. The machine was quicker and more efficient than a slow moving elephant. This resulted in the rapidly diminishing potential for the elephant to earn its keep. Now, most elephant owners find it very difficult to maintain an elephant, especially because the large quantity of food that the elephant requires daily to sustain it is difficult to find and, as a result, expensive.

After they captured the Maritime Provinces in 1505, the Portuguese took over the export of elephants that had formerly been carried out by the Sinhala kings. They established a special unit called the Elephant Hunt for the capture and export of elephants. When the Dutch defeated the Portuguese in 1655, the Elephant Hunt had nearly 3 000 men in its employ. The Dutch continued the capture and export of elephants. Indeed, they increased the size of the Elephant Hunt so as to increase their income through the export of elephants (Jayewardene, 1994).

The British initially captured the Maritime Provinces from the Dutch in 1796. In 1815 they captured the Kandyan Kingdom as well, and thus ruled the whole island. Unlike the Portuguese and the Dutch, the British were not interested in the export of elephants. The British finally abolished the Elephant Hunt in 1832. However, the British, seeing an opportunity for fun and excitement, started shooting elephants for sport. They also encouraged the killing of elephants by deeming them agricultural pests and paying a bounty for the shooting of elephants. It is recorded that Major Thomas Rogers killed 1 500 elephants before he was killed at the age of 41. Captain Galloway and Major Skinner are each reputed to have killed over 750 elephants. Many others have tallies of 250-300 elephants.

Some of the chieftains who helped the Sinhala kings to capture elephants were allowed to keep an elephant or two for themselves. The Portuguese and the Dutch continued this practice. This is how the long Sri Lankan tradition of private ownership of elephants started. To this day there are privately owned elephants.

Wild elephants

Early records show that Sri Lanka had an extensive area under forest cover. These forests were the habitat of a large number of elephants. At that time elephants were found in all parts of the country except in the southwestern coastal belt from Chilaw to Matara, and in the Jaffna Peninsula in the north.

During the times of the Sinhala kings and the Portuguese and Dutch, the capture of elephants from the wild did not have a big impact on their populations. However, with the advent of the British, their numbers started dwindling rapidly. It is recorded that at the beginning of the nineteenth century there were at least 19 500 elephants and at the turn of the twentieth century there were only an estimated 2 000. This drastic reduction was brought about by indiscriminate capture and wanton killing (Jayewardene, 1994).

Varying figures are given in respect of the present elephant population in the country. The most widely accepted figure is between 3 000 and 3 500. This is partly because a survey conducted by the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWLC) in 1994 revealed that there are about 2 000 elephants in the wild, except in the northern and eastern provinces where this survey could not be conducted. This survey found that there were 52 percent adults, 22 percent sub-adults and 26 percent juveniles. This is a healthy population structure and augurs well for the future of the elephant in the wild provided there is sufficient habitat (Hendawitharana et al., 1994).

Now the Department contends that there are over 4 000 elephants in the wild. Judging from the author's observations of elephants over a long period of time, 3 500 seems closer to the correct figure. However, a large number of newly born babies is seen now.

Records collected by the author from the Range Offices of the Department of Wildlife Conservation show that, on average, about 120 elephants are killed each year. One hundred and forty elephants were killed in the year 2000. This is only the recorded figure. Many deaths deep in the jungle go unrecorded. Even if we keep this figure at a conservative 30, then 150 wild elephants die each year. With a population of 3 500, this is a loss of 3.67 percent per annum from the wild herds.

Domesticated elephants

A census of the domesticated elephant population, carried out by J.B. Jayasinghe and M.R. Jainudeen of Peradeniya University in 1970, showed that there were 532 elephants among 378 owners on the island. This assessment, which was carried out mainly with reference to location and distribution, was conducted by sending out a questionnaire to the 22 government agents at that time. They were requested to circulate this questionnaire amongst their Divisional Revenue Officers who were to provide the figures. The numbers that were arrived at were based on these replies. Unfortunately there is no record of the number of males and females amongst the 532 elephants (Jayasinghe and Jainudeen, 1970).

In 1982, the Department of Wildlife Conservation carried out a census of the domesticated elephants in the country. This census, which was again carried out through the government agents of the districts, showed that there were a total of 344 elephants made up of 190 males (of which 29 were tuskers) and 154 females. Thus there appeared to be a reduction of 188 elephants in 12 years. This was an annual average loss of 15 elephants (Jayewardene, 1994). A survey carried out by Dr How Chin Cheong of Ceylon Grain Elevators, in 1994 covered 282 elephants.

The author carried out a survey of domesticated elephants in 1997. This survey revealed that there were about 214 domesticated elephants in Sri Lanka at that time. Of these, 107 were males and 107 were females. There were domesticated elephants in 15 of the 24 administrative districts in the country. The districts that had elephants were Colombo (34), Kandy (33), Galle (1), Kalutara (15), Kegalle (51), Kurunegala (12), Ratnapura (22), Matara (7), Hambantota (1), Matale (2), Nuwara Eliya (2), Gampaha (22), Badulla (8), Polonnaruwa (1) and Moneragala (3). It is in these districts with the highest numbers - Kegalle, Colombo and Kandy - that families have had elephants for a long time and that the more affluent families live. (Jayewardene, 1997).

There are no elephant owners in the eastern and northern provinces. There were no elephants in these two provinces even during the Jayasinghe and Jainudeen survey. They attributed this to the fact that Tamil people, who are predominant in these two provinces, are averse to risking their money on this type of livestock. The Sinhalese, on the other hand, have traditionally associated with elephants. It must be noted that the most famous elephant trappers, the Pannikans (Moors), came from the eastern province.

Other major reasons for the absence of domesticated elephants in these provinces are its dry climate and the lack of food suitable for domesticated elephants. The jungles there, however, have a number of wild elephants. The food consumed by the wild elephants is entirely different to that consumed by the domesticated ones.

Many elephants have died even since the last survey. On the other hand, only a few have been added to the number of domesticated elephants, especially after the government ban in the mid 1970s on the capture of elephants from the wild. The number added after the ban consisted of those elephants given to a few temples from the Elephant Orphanage at Pinnawela. During the period between the surveys a number of elephants have changed owners. The new owners have, in some instances, changed the name of the elephant. This made it difficult to trace the history of the elephant during the survey carried out by the author.

Most of the districts in which there are tame elephants do not have any wild elephant habitats. Because the food of the tame elephant is entirely different from that of the wild ones, the lack of jungles is not a problem for elephant owners when looking for food for their elephants. However, jak (Artocarpus integer), kitul (Caryota urens) and coconut (Cocos nucifera), which constitute a large part of a tame elephant's food, is becoming scarce everywhere and owners find it difficult to obtain this food.

Elephants that are kept in captivity are mainly fed on kitul, coconut, jak, Erythrina species, and bo (Ficus religiosa). Elephants also eat, depending on availability, pota wel (Pothos scandens), gonna (Ficus callosa), palu (Manilkara hexandra), nuga (Ficus benghalensis), na (Mesua ferrea), attikka (Ficus racemosa), agal adara (Adhatoda vasica), budeliya (Tetracera sarmentosa) and erabudu (Erythrina lithosperma). Banana (Musa spp.) is also consumed when available (Godagama, 1996).

Earlier, when elephants were more freely available than they are now, the price of an elephant was comparatively low. At that time, elephants could be caught from the jungles on a permit that was easy to obtain. In their survey report, Jayasinghe and Jainudeen (1970) state that the value of an elephant was Rs. 15 000. However, it must be remembered that a Rupee had greater value then than it does now.

In a survey carried out in 1985, it was found that the highest amount that had been paid for an elephant was Rs. 275 000 for a 35 years old female elephant. However, the average price for an elephant at that time seems to have been in the range of Rs. 125 000 to Rs. 175 000. At an auction held by the Department of Wildlife Conservation in 1984, a 1.83 m (6 ft) tall female captured from the jungles was sold for Rs. 350 000. At the last Wildlife Department auction in November 1995, a male wild elephant, 2.74 m (9 ft) tall, was sold for Rs. 705 000. This male was approximately 20 years old.

An analysis of the value of elephants over the years shows that because of the smaller number of elephants being put on the market in recent times, prices have shown a tendency to increase. This is also partly because of the fact that the value of the Rupee has reduced steadily. On the other hand, there are very few owners who wish to dispose of their elephants. Government restrictions have resulted in there being no increase in the number of domesticated elephants originally captured from the wild. There are no captive births. Both these factors restrict the number of elephants available and therefore the few for sale fetch a high price. There are a few illicit captures from the wild, but these are never brought to the open, let alone put up for public sale. The younger animals, both male and female, command better prices than elephants that are over 45 years old. The tuskers, on the other hand, whatever their age, command a very high price.

Table 1 gives details of the author's 1997 survey and Table 2 compares these details with the results of the survey carried out in 1970.

Table 1. Distribution of domesticated elephant by district - 1997

Table 2. Comparison of 1970 and 1997 surveys

Laws

Because there was indiscriminate slaughter by those hunting for sport, villagers and those engaged in the sale of meat, which caused a rapid decline in game, the British passed a law in 1872 called the"Ordinance to prevent wasteful destruction of buffaloes and game throughout the island”. This ordinance banned shooting during the months April to September.

On the recommendations of a committee appointed to review the existing laws, another law was passed in 1891 by the Legislative Council styled the"Ordinance to prevent wanton destruction of elephants, buffaloes and other game”. This was the first time that the elephant was specifically afforded protection under the law.

In 1908, the Governor appointed a committee consisting of members of the Game Protection Society to make recommendations with regard to improvements in the law. The government accepted their recommendations and the Game Protection Ordinance of 1909 was passed. This ordinance related mostly to the controlled shooting or capture of elephants, buffaloes, game animals or birds, the prevention of shooting at night, the setting of traps for the capture of game, and open and closed seasons for shooting.

The Minister of Agriculture and Lands, who was also responsible for wildlife, appointed a committee in 1934 to inquire into and report on the measures necessary for the further protection of indigenous fauna and flora. The report contained very important recommendations, which were incorporated into the Fauna & Flora Protection Ordinance of 1937.

Part II of the Fauna & Flora Protection Ordinance (including all amendments up to Act No. 49 of 1993) relates mainly to wild elephants with Chapters 23, 24 and 25 relating to tame or domesticated elephants. Parts of these are reproduced below.

Chapter 23:

1) Any person who is in unlawful possession of any elephant shall be guilty of an offence and on conviction be liable to a fine not less than one hundred thousand rupees and not more than two hundred thousand rupees or to imprisonment for a term not less than 10 years and not exceeding 20 years or to both such fine and imprisonment; and the court may on the conviction of any such person make order for the disposal of the elephant in respect of which the offence was committed, having regard to the rights of any other person who may appear to the court to be lawfully entitled to the possession of such elephant.

2) A person who is found in possession of an elephant shall be deemed to be in unlawful possession of that elephant unless:

a) He is the captor of that elephant under the authority of a licence issued under this ordinance or under any written law repealed by Ordinance No, 2 of 1937; or

b) He is the successor in title to such captor; or

c) He is in possession on behalf of such captor or his successor in title.

Chapter 24:

No person shall have in his possession a tusk or tush unless such tusk or tush has been registered with a prescribed officer.

1) Every prescribed officer shall keep a register for the registration of tusks and tushes in such form as may be prescribed.

2) Any person who has in his possession a tusk or tush that has not been registered shall be guilty of an offence and shall on conviction be liable to a fine not less than thirty thousand rupees and not exceeding one hundred thousand rupees or to imprisonment for a term not less than two years and not exceeding five years or to both such fine and imprisonment.

3) The Court may, on the conviction of any person of an offence under sub section 3, make order for the disposal of the tusk or tush in respect of the offence that was committed, having regard to the rights of any other person who may appear to the court to be lawfully entitled to the possession of such tusk or tush.

4) Regulations may be made:

a) Specifying the officer who shall have power to register tusks and tushes, and

b) Specifying the form in which prescribed officers shall maintain registers under this section.

Chapter 24A:

1) Upon registration of a tusk or tush in accordance with section 24 every person who has in his possession a tusk or tush shall obtain a licence in respect of such tusk or tush.

2) The licence shall be obtained on application made to the prescribed officer, in the prescribed form, on payment of the prescribed fee.

3) Every prescribed officer shall maintain a register in respect of the licensing of tusks and tushes.

4) Any person who has in his possession a tush or tush without obtaining a licence in respect of the same, shall be guilty of an offence and shall on conviction be liable to a fine of not less than thirty thousand rupees and not exceeding one hundred thousand rupees or to imprisonment for a term not less than two years and not exceeding five years, or to both such fine and imprisonment.

Chapter 24B:

The Director or any officer authorized by him may at any time enter any premises where he has reason to believe the tusk or tushes are being kept, and to make such inquiries and investigation thereon as may be necessary to ascertain whether the provisions of this section are being complied with.

Chapter 25:

1) Where it appears to the Warden or any police officer or other prescribed officer that any person is in unlawful possession of any tusker or elephant, it shall be lawful for the Warden or such police or other prescribed officer to seize and detain such tusker or elephants and to apply to the Magistrate having jurisdiction over the place where the animal was seized to make order for the disposal of such tusker or elephant. And the Magistrate to whom such application is made may, after such inquiry as he may deem necessary, make such order for the disposal of the tusker or elephant as the justice of the case may require.

2) An order made under this section shall not affect the liability of any person to be prosecuted for any offence committed in respect of the tusker or elephant to which the order relates.

According to the law, every tame elephant should be registered with the Department of Wildlife Conservation and subsequently a licence obtained each year. The officials of the Department of Wildlife Conservation have to inspect each elephant before the annual licence is granted. This system is designed to ensure that the elephant was the same animal and that their owners maintain the elephants in good physical condition. Though it is an offence not to licence an elephant annually, in practice many owners do not licence their elephants each year. In fact, 22 out of 150 owners did not register their elephants with the Department of Wildlife Conservation in 1997. This is an offence and under the law the elephant can be confiscated and the owner charged in court. If the owner is found guilty, he can be fined anything between Rs.30 000 and 100 000.

All elephant tusks or tushes in the possession of private individuals, temples or any other organization have to be registered with the Department of Wildlife Conservation. However, it is not necessary to obtain an annual licence for tusks and tushes, as in the case of elephants. Here too there are many sets of elephant tusks, especially in old family homes and temples, which are not registered with the DWLC.

The law prevents the export of any part of an elephant, but allows the export of a live elephant. This means that you could if you wish export an elephant and use any specific part, for example the tusks, after it is exported. At present, the Department of Wildlife Conservation does not issue permits for the export of any elephants from Sri Lanka, even though the law does allow it. However, presidents and prime ministers of this country have exported elephants to other countries as gifts to their heads of state. It is necessary that the export of elephants from this country be banned totally.

With regard to animal welfare Sri Lanka has, perhaps, the most antiquated legislation in the world. The governing statute is"The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Ordinance”, No. 13 of 1907, which sets out various offences and penalties for mistreatment of animals. It was last amended in 1955. It is seldom enforced. The form and scope of this legislation is substantially inadequate. Its limitations are apparent when it is compared with the animal welfare legislation of neighbouring countries such as India, i.e. The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960, or with similar legislation of countries such as Australia.

The existing legislation is deficient in the following areas:

1) It requires broader coverage of animal welfare issues.

2) The regulation for slaughtering animals must be made compatible with humane practices adopted in modern societies.

3) There is no regulation for:

• research and teaching activities using animals, including animal experimentation;
• transport of animals;
• loads (including the number of passengers) to be carried or drawn by any animal; and
• exhibition and training of performing animals.

4) There is no provision for a third party e.g. a registered animal welfare organization to initiate or intervene in any legal proceedings on behalf of an animal.

5) The time allowed for making a complaint to the police, i.e. three months from the date of the commission of an offence is inadequate.

6) The penalties prescribed for any cruelty to an animal are too low to have any deterrent effect, e.g. the maximum fine is Rs.100, but this may be increased to Rs. 200 in the case of a second or subsequent offence.

Since the enactment of this Ordinance in 1907, the concepts of animal cruelty and its prevention have developed over the years. The introduction of new legislation that will embrace a wider scope of matters involving animal welfare generally is now considered necessary (Weeraratna, 1999).

The cruelty perpetrated on domesticated elephants in most case goes unreported or ignored. There are instances of cruel treatment of elephants by the mahouts who are supposed to look after them. This includes overworking the animals, not giving them enough food, the unnecessary use of the goad (hendu), etc. There are also reports of elephants used for safari rides, as they are called, being kept in the hot sun and made to walk on the hot tarmac till they get onto the jungle paths. At Habarana, in eastern Sri Lanka, there are nearly 30 elephants used for elephant safaris. During times of drought, these animals have to share a small puddle of water for bathing. These baths are of a very short duration because there are other elephants waiting to use the same puddle. This is in contrast to the need for the domesticated elephant to stay in the water for long periods.

The amendments to the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Ordinance must take cognizance of this ill treatment and cruelty Changes and additions to prevent further abuse of the tame elephants must be made. The new laws must also give teeth to the law enforcement authorities to take quick and strict action.

It is incumbent on the government to ensure that the welfare of elephants is protected through appropriate legislation.

Registration

Section 23(1) of the Fauna and Flora Act makes it necessary for owners to register their elephants. It also requires taking out a licence annually from the prescribed officer. In this case the prescribed officer for both the registration and the issue of annual licences is the Director of Wildlife Conservation. The annual licence should be issued consequent to an inspection of the elephant by an officer of the Department of Wildlife Conservation.

The Minister in charge of wildlife published these regulations in the Government Gazette in 1992 thus enabling the Director of Wildlife Conservation to proceed with the registration of all domesticated elephants. He was also to start the issue of annual licences in respect of each elephant. The Director, Department of Wildlife Conservation published a notice in various newspapers giving publicity to the need for all domesticated elephants to be registered by their owners. The registration fee for each elephant was Rs.500 and the annual licence fee was Rs.250. The Department commenced the registration of domesticated elephants in 1992. At present owners have registered only 128 elephants and annual licences were initially taken out in respect of this number.

The following details are recorded when registering elephants: name and address of owner; date of registration; sex; age; height at shoulder; circumference of fore feet; any permanent identification marks; any other distinguishing marks or deformities; name and address of previous owner; right of possession of present and previous owner; authority issuing licence; place where elephant is usually kept. Pasted on the registration book is a photograph of the side view of the elephant. The right of possession is based on an affidavit and licence obtained from the local municipal authority (Gam Sabha or Pradesheeya Sabha).

Up to now only 128 elephants have been registered. At the time registration commenced in 1992 there would have been approximately 260 tame elephants. In 1997 the survey of tame elephants conducted by the author revealed that there were around 214. In 1999 the Department of Wildlife Conservation initiated a survey of the domesticated elephant population in the country. This was carried out through the District Secretaries, who were requested to fill in a form with the required information, consisting of: name and address of all elephant owners in the district; number of elephants owned; male/female; and tusker/without tusks. These details are still coming in. Based on the information received so far, the Department has written to 91 owners who have not as yet registered their elephants, asking them to do so. They have been informed of the legal consequences in the event that they do not register their elephants. Errant elephant owners could be fined between Rs.100 000 and Rs.200 000 or imprisoned for a period between 10 and 20 years, or both.

In 1995, the Department of Wildlife Conservation advertized in the newspapers calling on all elephant owners to register their elephants. The response was very poor, because the Department did not take any action against even one errant elephant owner. The owners were unlikely to feel compelled to register their elephants.

The Department must take immediate action to complete the survey they started in 1999. In fact, the details obtained so far will have to be updated because many of the elephants reported on will have died. The Department should also take legal action against at least two or three elephant owners who have not registered their elephants. Then the message will go through the elephant owning community that the Department means business. The Department could also use the assistance of the Elephant Owners Association. The Department is now preparing to insert another advertisement in the newspapers. However, if no punitive action is taken against errant owners, there will be very little response to this call.

Organizations and their major projects

There are two government departments involved with domesticated elephants in Sri Lanka. They are the Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Department of Animal Production and Health (DAPH). The Department of Wildlife Conservation, in keeping with the requirements of the Fauna and Flora Ordinance have to register all tame elephants and issue annual licences for these animals. With that the functions of the DWLC in respect of domesticated elephants ceases.

The DAPH is in charge of the veterinary services and they place veterinarians in all parts of the country. These veterinarians, by training and practice, mostly look after domestic pets and livestock. Some of those who are posted in the districts are called upon to treat domesticated elephants as well. In some instances these veterinarians have neither the experience nor the training to treat elephants. In most cases they are female veterinarians and are not keen on treating elephants because, apart from their lack of knowledge and experience, they are physically afraid of these animals. Some of the male veterinarians too are frightened of treating tame elephants.

In 1970, J.B. Jayasinghe and M.R. Jainudeen of Peradeniya University carried out a study on the domesticated elephant population in the country. Peradeniya and Colombo Universities have been engaged in research on tame elephants from time to time. Professor W. Ratnasooriya et al. have carried out many research studies on the testosterone levels, etc. in the elephants in the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage and the National Zoo at Dehiwela. Anouk Illangakoon carried out a preliminary study of captive elephants in Sri Lanka and the results were published in Gajah, the journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Wasantha Godagama also carried out a study on the domesticated elephant and the mahouts. Jayasekere et al. did a case study of ‘Elephants in logging operations in Sri Lanka'. However there is much more scope and need for the universities to get involved in research studies on tame elephants.

None of the many non governmental organizations have become involved with tame elephants in Sri Lanka except, from time to time, to voice their protests at what they feel is cruelty perpetrated on these animals by the mahouts and owners.

The Captive Elephant Owners Association of Sri Lanka was formed in 1998. The objective of this association is to build good relationships amongst all the captive elephant owners by bringing them to a common arena. In this way they can get to know each other and receive help and assistance to ensure the well being and development of domesticated elephants throughout the country.

The immediate work plans of the association include the following:

1) collecting all relevant information on all captive elephants in the country;

2) introducing an insurance scheme for elephants;

3) establishing a genetic centre for the promotion of captive breeding;

4) opening a museum and library;

5) setting up nurseries for the propagation of the species, especially kitul (Caryota urens), which the domesticated elephants feed on;

6) finding other methods (purchase, import, capture from the wild) of getting domesticated elephants for the members of the association; making medical facilities available to all domesticated elephants;

7) carrying out medical examination of all domesticated elephants periodically; and

8) providing training for elephant owners and mahouts.

Work

Elephants work for half a day, generally for five to six hours. During the other half of the day they are rested and bathed. The amount of work available for elephants has reduced greatly, mainly because tractors and other machinery, which are now available, can do this work faster. It is only in difficult and inaccessible terrain that elephants are necessary. They are also still very useful in the timber industry.

Some elephant owners do not expect any income from their elephants even though the elephants are sent out to work. They allow the mahout to hire out the elephant and earn the keep of both the elephant and the mahout. The elephants are taken away to logging sites or hotels to give tourists rides. Some owners do not know where their elephants work. The fate of the elephant is entirely in the hands of the mahout. In some instances the owner sees the elephants only at one of the temple processions or perehera.

Some owners keep the elephants with them and are aware, on a daily basis, what each of their elephants is doing in the form of work. The owners of a number of elephants have given their elephants out to others to look after and get work out of them. A few elephant owners do not get their elephants to do any work. They are kept as pets because the owners are fond of elephants.

Even though an elephant is supposed to work half a day, unscrupulous mahouts, at the request of those giving them work, make the elephant work longer hours. The mahout is compensated for this, usually by liquor or an extra payment of around Rs. 50 per hour.

Reduced opportunities for work mean that the elephant is the first to suffer. The quantity of food given to the elephant is reduced because of the owner's or mahout's lower income. Medical attention, unless absolutely necessary, is not given for the same reason. Sometimes, many elephants have wounds that are being treated only superficially.

The domesticated elephant in Sri Lanka is engaged in many kinds of work. These are described in the following sections.

1) Timber industry

Elephants are used to push down trees in the jungle and drag the logs onto the road. These logs are then loaded onto lorries by the elephants. At the timber yard or saw mill the elephants unload the logs off the lorry and stack them. They are hired sometimes by the estates to haul onto the road the trees that have been felled for use as firewood and timber.

A careful analysis of the use of elephants to haul logs proves beyond doubt that elephants are in many ways the ideal tool for forest operations. In the fragile ecosystems of tropical wet evergreen natural forests, mechanized logging causes ten times as much heavy damage as traditional logging using animals. Damage caused is both direct and indirect, including prevention of natural regeneration - which can lead to genetic erosion, damage to the soil structure, and hydrological modification (Jayasekere et al., 1995)

2) Construction industry

From time immemorial elephants have assisted man in his construction work. The great reservoirs in the dry zone and the ancient cities that presently lie in ruins were all constructed with the assistance of elephants. They helped to haul the building materials that were used. Elephants are now used to carry steel girders used for roofs. They carry bags of sand from the rivers on to the road. Metal from stone quarries is brought to the road by elephants.

3) Tourism

Elephants are kept at tourist hotels and other places where tourists visit. They give tourists rides on their backs. Beach hotels have elephants on the beach for tourists to ride. Many tourists love to have their photographs taken either on the back of an elephant or standing by its side.

Some elephants are kept in hotels in the dry zone where there are suitable jungles close by. They are used to take tourists and even local visitors on safaris into the jungle. Tourists are taken for an hour or two, on elephant back, into the jungle where they see wildlife, including elephants.

4) Ceremonies

The most common ceremonial occasions in which elephants participate in are the annual processions or perehera conducted by temples all over the island. The largest of these is the Esela perehera conducted by the Dalada Maligawa in Kandy. Well over a hundred elephants used to participate in this perehera. In recent years the numbers have dwindled. The other major perehera is the Navam perehera conducted by the Gangaramaya Temple in Colombo. The Bellanwila, Kelaniya and Dondra temples also, amongst numerous other temples, conduct perehera where elephants participate. Some perehera have only one elephant participating.

The capacity of an elephant to carry out heavy work keeps on increasing until it is about 40 years of age. Its performance then plateaus for a short while and from that time on its performance gradually drops. The rate it drops at depends on the condition of the animal, the food it gets, and the hours and type of work it has to perform daily and the regularity of this work.

In Sri Lanka, elephants work 15-20 days per month. The mahouts are paid around Rs.50 per day. In some cases the mahouts are paid separately by the person who hires the elephants. Some also supply the mahouts with liquor in an effort to get more work out of the elephant. Elephants are worked for only half the day, so the mahouts are free for the rest of the day, except to bathe the elephant. As a result, the mahouts have a lot of free time, most of which, generally after bathing the elephant, is spent drinking.

Veterinary care

Though the Department of Wildlife Conservation is charged with the registration of all the domesticated elephants in the country and the issue of annual licences for these elephants, their responsibility ends there. The veterinary services for the domesticated animals in the country are provided by the Department of Animal Production and Health. This Department has posted veterinary surgeons in all parts of the country. Though these veterinary surgeons are capable of treating domestic pets and livestock, they have very little or no experience in the treatment of tame elephants. In some parts of the country there are no veterinary surgeons.

It s not only the lack of training and experience that prevents veterinary surgeons from treating elephants, but also the fact that they are not comfortable in the presence of such a large animal. During the course of their education and training they do not work with elephants. It is only very rarely that they get an opportunity to treat an elephant in their student days. Later when they are posted to field stations, they are called upon, occasionally, to treat a domesticated elephant. This is very difficult for them and it does not give them the experience that they need for the future.

Traditionally, in Sri Lanka native medicine has been used to treat elephants and it is only in a few instances that veterinary surgeons have been called on to treat tame elephants. Most elephant owners prefer native treatments. Although most of the older breed of elephant owners continue with the Sinhala or traditional treatments for the diseases and illnesses of their elephants, some owners prefer western treatments. However, most owners find it difficult to obtain the services of either a good veterinary surgeon or a traditional medical practitioner (Veda Mahaththaya) or native physician.

Many elephant owners come to the veterinary surgeon with their sick elephants only at the last moment, after having had the elephants treated unsuccessfully by a native physician. The elephants, in most of these cases, eventually die in the hands of the veterinary surgeon. This then serves to confirm the fallacy that has developed amongst many elephant owners that western medicine is not effective in the treatment of elephants.

Taking cognizance of the urgent need to have sufficient veterinary surgeons trained and experienced in elephant care, the Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust organized a training programme for veterinary surgeons in October 1999. This training programme was for the veterinary surgeons of the Department of Animal Production and Health, who were posted in various parts of Sri Lanka where there were domesticated elephants. Twelve veterinary surgeons attended this training programme, conducted by the Faculty of Veterinary Science of the University of Peradeniya. Prof. Vijitha Kuruvita, an experienced elephant veterinarian and the Vice Chancellor of the University of Peradeniya led the lecturers. Two very experienced veterinarians, Drs S. Krishnamurty from India and Preecha Phuangkum of Thailand, along with Richard Lair and Dr Bjarne Clausen, a veterinarian from Denmark, attended the programme and contributed significantly. This training benefited the veterinarians greatly. The Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust, a very active NGO in Sri Lanka, intends conducting a follow-up training programme in early 2001.

With regard to native practitioners, they do not seem to be passing on their knowledge to their children, as was done in the past. With only a few elephants in the vicinity, it does not seem useful or necessary for any other native physician to learn how to treat elephants.

The books that native physicians have compiled on the various treatments for elephant illnesses and diseases, are not being reproduced. These books, called the Ali Veda Potha (Book on Treatment of Elephants), are hand-written by the individual physicians rather than printed. For posterity, the books should be formally published in their original language and also translated into English and published.

A number of mahouts are also adept at treating elephants. They have learned the skill from Veda Mahaththayas or from other older mahouts who have some knowledge of the treatment of elephant ailments and diseases. Some mahouts have worked out their own treatments.

Summary and opinions

The Land Reform Act in 1972, whereby each individual's land ownership was reduced to only 20.24 ha (50 acres), affected many elephant owners. The large landholdings that some of the elephant owners had were greatly reduced and they had to go elsewhere in search of food for their elephants, as they could no longer find it on their estates. Some owners whose elephants did not work and earn any money were hard pressed as a result of this new financial burden. Many owners sold their elephants. There was a ready market for these elephants from an increasing population of nouveaux riches that saw the ownership of an elephant as a status symbol. There was also a demand for elephants from the timber industries.

Elephant owners find it increasingly difficult to maintain their elephants. On the one hand the work available for elephants is getting scarcer and, as a result, incomes derived from this work are shrinking. This means that owners have to supplement the earnings from the elephants to maintain them. Moreover, food is becoming increasingly difficult to find and is as a result more expensive.

Jayasinghe and Jainudeen (1970) estimated that, on average, ten elephants die in captivity each year. The death rate has remained static since. Jayasinghe and Jainudeen conducted their survey when there were a larger number of domesticated elephants in the country and when the capture of elephants from the wild, on permits issued by the government, was allowed. Now there are no elephants coming in from the wild except those that are brought as orphans to the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage. The government banned the capture of elephants from the wild in the mid 1970s.

The annual death rate (12-15) amongst the domesticated elephants is higher now than at the time Jayasinghe and Jainudeen conducted their survey. This is because the age of the majority of the domesticated elephants has increased since that survey and a large percentage of elephants are in the older category. With no replenishment from the wild the number of the domesticated elephants in this country is dwindling rapidly.

The survey carried out by the author in 1997 revealed the following problems and needs of the owners of domesticated elephants.

1) Most elephant owners find that food necessary to feed an elephant is expensive and difficult to obtain. As a result of the scarcity of jak, kitul and coconut their prices have gone up.

2) In most areas it is very difficult to obtain veterinary services for the treatment of elephant illnesses and diseases. In other areas such services are non-existent.

3) A number of persons who own or have owned an elephant have indicated that they would like to own at least one more elephant.

4) Elephant owners and mahouts would like to have training in new methods of elephant management. There is a great need to change the attitudes of some of the owners of elephants and some mahouts. It is also necessary to train the mahouts, some of whom have only a very basic idea of elephant care and management.

5) Many elephant owners would like to have advice and assistance on how to breed their elephants. In this respect the Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Captive Elephant Owners Association of Sri Lanka, could be very helpful. My survey has revealed that a number of owners and mahouts have recognized the need to improve their knowledge of elephant care and management.

6) The shortage of work for elephants is making it economically difficult for some owners to keep them. This is an area that can be improved by the Captive Elephant Owners Association, which could get elephant owners to agree to operate their elephants only in a particular area. The association could also collect information about the work available for elephants and inform the owners of these opportunities.

Policy suggestions

A policy decision should be made by the government to either sell the Pinnawela elephants or allow capture from the forests. This former measure, however, should only be carried out if prospective owners meet certain criteria, which are briefly mentioned below and in more detail later on in the paper.

Above all, before any elephant is given out to private owners, it must be established that the individuals or organizations to whom the elephants are to be given have both the finances and the experience to bring up a baby elephant. They should be able to afford to keep an elephant without it being necessary for the elephant to earn its keep because now it is difficult to find work for an elephant. Experience in elephant keeping is also an absolute necessity. Otherwise, there will be inexperienced owners handling elephants that may prove dangerous and also fatal. One example of this is where a nouveau riche gem merchant purchased a female elephant that was captured from the jungle. This animal was pregnant and in due course gave birth. The owner, thrilled with his new pet, used to take the baby in the back of his jeep. One day when the vehicle jerked to a stop, the animal fell off, hit his head on the road and died. Elephants should not fall into the hands of those who treat them as curiosities.

Multiple strategies have to be adopted to ensure that the domesticated elephant population in this country does not diminish and that there are sufficient elephants for our domestic purposes.

1) Captive breeding is an important strategy for two major reasons: a) for elephant conservation and in trying to keep the numbers of the domesticated elephants at a high level; and b) to gain experience in captive breeding in the event of a threat of extinction of the species.

2) It is necessary to have adequate supplies of food easily available if there is to be an improvement in the maintenance of domesticated elephants. Large scale planting of the domesticated elephant's preferred foods is very essential. This cannot be done by individuals, but has to be done by an organization.

3) Improved training for mahouts in modern methods of elephant care and management is essential. Though the traditional techniques have been developed for hundreds of years and passed down, it is now time for scientific methods of elephant management to be adopted.

4) Improved veterinary services are also absolutely essential if the domesticated elephants are to be brought up well tended and cared for. The government will have to employ and train veterinary surgeons and post them to districts were there are domesticated elephants.

5) The Department of Wildlife Conservation has to play a more active role to support the owners of elephants and to ensure that there will continue to be domesticated elephants in sufficient numbers on the island.

6) The Captive Elephant Owners Association could play a very useful role by assisting in a number of areas of domesticated elephant management and care where individual owners would not be able to make much headway.

If the government adopts a policy of selling some of the large number of elephants at the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage to selected persons, it will ensure that the elephants would be better looked after than they are now. They will be given better individual attention by the new owners and mahouts. This policy of selective disposal will ensure better care of the elephants that are left. The numbers to be sold to private owners and temples annually should be decided on the basis of the availability of suitable elephants at that time.

Those who would be eligible to buy elephants from Pinnawela should be chosen very carefully. The following criteria should be the standard requirements for eligibility to ownership. These criteria should be strictly adhered to. The Department of Wildlife Conservation and the government can decide on other criteria as well.

A panel should decide on who is qualified to own an elephant. The panel should consist of the Director of Wildlife or his senior representative, a veterinary surgeon with experience in treating elephants and one or two senior and well-known private elephant owners.

To be eligible to own an elephant, prospective owners should:

• have at least ten years experience in the care and management of elephants;

• have at least ten years experience of having owned an elephant;

• have sufficient land and access to food and water for the elephant;

• have the services of an experienced mahout to look after the elephant;

• demonstrate the financial capability to maintain an elephant without depending on it having to work to earn its keep. This is very necessary because there may be no work for elephants in the future;

• agree to a four-monthly check on the health of the elephants by a panel appointed by the Department of Wildlife Conservation. The panel will visit the new elephant owners and monitor the elephant's health and general condition. This is designed to ensure that the elephants bought by private individuals are maintained properly; and

• agree to participate in the captive-breeding programme of the Department. This should be at the cost of the Department.

Whilst making a policy decision to dispose of some of the elephants at Pinnawela periodically, it is necessary to keep in mind that the elephants most suitable for training by the new owners should be sold. The training that the elephants get at Pinnawela is sufficient to manage the elephants in a herd, but when an elephant is on its own it needs further training and disciplining to make it obey many more commands.

When considering the above suggestion it must be remembered that the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage has elephants in excess of its capacity to manage and maintain. Selling some of these elephants to selected private owners will help to ease this problem. A number of baby elephants are brought to Pinnawela each year and are adding to the present number. On the other hand, though 1.83 m (6 ft) tall wild males may be ideal for training, there is no guarantee that their capture will be done selectively to ensure that the good breeding males are left in the jungle. How can one judge a good breeding male in the jungle?

References

Godagama, W.K. (1996) An ethno-zoology of captivated elephants in Sri Lanka. Master of Phil. thesis. University of Colombo, Sri Lanka

Hendawitharna W. et al., 1994. A survey of elephants in Sri Lanka. Gajah, the Newsletter of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group. No. 12: 1-19.

Jayasinghe, J.B. & M.R. Jainudeen. 1970. A census of the tame elephant population in Ceylon with reference to location and distribution. Ceylon Jnl. of Science (Bio Sci) 8 (2).

Jayesekere, P. et al., 1995. Elephants in logging operations in Sri Lanka, A case study carried out for the FAO, Rome.

Jayewardene, Jayantha. 1994. The elephant in Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust, Cotta Road, Colombo.

Jayewardene, Jayantha. 1997. A survey of domesticated elephants in Sri Lanka. (mimeo).

Weeraratna, Senaka. 1999. The requirement for new animal welfare legislation in Sri Lanka. 7^th Sri Lanka Studies Conference, 3-6 December 1999, Canberra, Australia.

Interviews

Mr A.P.A. Goonesekere, Director, Department of Wildlife Conservation

Mr Edmund Wilson, Assistant Director, Department of Wildlife Conservation

Mr W. Hendavitharana, Rural Sociologist, Department of Wildlife Conservation

Mr Damsiri Karunaratne, Honorary Secretary, Captive Elephant Owners Association of Sri Lanka

Dr Seevali Ranawana, Director General, Department of Animal Production and Health

Question and answer session

Q1: Are the baby elephants living in the Pinnawela Orphanage reintroduced into the wild?

A1: There is no official policy of reintroducing captive elephants back into the wild. But there is a sort of"halfway house” into which 11 elephants have been successfully introduced so far.

Q2: Is the standard of mahoutship as good as it was in former times?

A2: The traditional skills are no longer handed down from father to son so the mahouts nowadays do not have the detailed knowledge that mahouts had in former times. They need to be trained to improve their skills. But we have also found that modern scientific knowledge suggests that some traditional practices are not good.

An Indonesian participant stated that the situation is similar in Indonesia and there is no bond between the keepers and their elephants.

Dr Cheeran stated that they have a mahout training school in South India and they have a mahoutship manual. He also stated that there is a great need for the manual to be translated into regional languages and for the introduction of a mahout licensing system.