Zoo-geographical distribution and the status of coldwater fish in Nepal. (by K.J. Rajbanshi)

Royal Nepal Academy of Sciences and Technology (RONAST), Kathmandu, Lalitpur,
MS Nepal

ABSTRACT

The paper reviews the old and new reports and records on fish of Nepal. On the basis of their distribution in Nepal water bodies, a distribution list of 76 indigenous cold water fish has been compiled. Amongst the cold water fish the family Cyprinidae dominates with 46 species. It is followed by families Sisoridae and Balitoridae. In the cold waters of mountains the cyprinids Schizothorax and Schizothoraichthys dominate. In high hills and the hill region they are joined by Tor, Neolissocheilus, Barilius, Chagunius, Semiplotus, Glyptothorax, Botia and Clupisoma. These cold water fish provide food and income to the local people. In Nepal cold water fish are considered tastier than other fish, therefore they are preferred and in demand and fetch a high price in the markets. Species of the genera Tor, Neolissocheilus, Barilius and Schizothorax are also known as sport fish. Some other cold water species have decorative and academic values. At present none of the cold water fish species of Nepal is listed as endangered or threatened. Due to the continuing deterioration of the aquatic environment the status of cold water fish needs to be revised through an in-depth assesment of the current situation, and if the situation is found serious, a long-term action plan for the preservation of the endangered species should be prepared and implemented. Aquaculture of cold water fish as well as establishment of sport and recreational fishery centres at appropriate points in mountains and hills would not only enhance the production of fish as food for the local population but it would also be a good opportunity for providing employment, including a stimulus for eco-tourism to earn foreign currency. This would also reduce the need for the people to leave the mountains in search of employment in the southern Nepal.

1. INTRODUCTION

Nepal lies at the center of 2 500 km long Himalayas which start at Namcha Barwa (7 756 meter above sea level) in the east and end at Nanga Parbat K2 (8 125 m) in the west. The part of Himalayas within the Kingdom of Nepal between 800 22' E to 880 12' E and 260 20'N to 300 27'N is also called Central or Nepal Himalaya (Jairajpuri, 1993). It shares to over one third length of the Himalayas.

Fig. 1 - Physiographic map of Nepal

On the map, Nepal looks like a humped rectangle of about 845 km from east to west and between 145 km to 225 km in width from north to south. It covers an area of 147 181 km². Its elevation ranges from the lowest point of 60 m to 8 848 m, the world's highest peak Sagarmatha (Mount Everest). On the southern border, a strip of land of about 40- 45 km wide called Terai has tropical climatic conditions and is part of the Gangetic plains. It occupies the whole length of southern Nepal and represents approximately 17% of the total area of the country. This strip of land is very productive and is considered the grain basket of the country. To the north of Terai there are two hill ranges - the Siwalik hills with an average altitude of 1 500 - 2 000 m, and further north the Mahabharat hills with a range of 2 000 - 3 000 m. In between the two hill ranges, there are a number of small and medium sized productive valleys called "doons". Further north are high hills - an extension of the Mahabharat hills which ranges from 2 000 to 5 000 m and roughly covers about 55% of the total area of the country. The extreme north of the country includes 10 of the world's 14 highest peaks above 8 000 m. These high peaks typically stand in clusters and in rows, are covered in snow and ice and are the perennial source of water for Nepal.

2. WATER RESOURCES

The River Ganges has a large number of tributaries rising from the Himalayan ranges, of which the drainage system of Nepal contribution is the largest. Based on their origin and water discharge, the rivers of Nepal are broadly classified into three categories; major, medium and minor. The first category includes four major rivers - the Koshi in the eastern region, the Gandak in the central region, and the Karnali and Mahakali in the far-western region (Sharma, 1977). The first three major rivers, River Koshi, R. Gandak (or Gandaki) and R. Karnali originate from the northern slopes of the greater Himalayas and subsequently cross the Himalayas, while the fourth river, the Mahakali, originates from the high mountains of Nepal Himalayas. The total area drained by the major rivers of Nepal alone is more than 60 % of the total drainage area of the country. Each major river, besides the Mahakali, has seven large tributaries draining large catchments. Many more medium and small sized rivers and streams originate from the mountains, high hills of the Mahabharat and Siwalik regions and form a complex network of the river system. Most of these rivers and streams drain from north to south with some exceptions from west to east. These rivers traverse from the alpine to the tropical climatic zones. They are torrential in the north and almost stagnant in the south and ultimately drain into the River Ganges to which they are the largest water contributor, bringing in about 41 % of the annual flow and about 71 % of the dry season flow of the Ganges (Abbas, 1982).

2.1 Rivers

2.1.1. Major rivers

RIVER KOSHI

Fig. 2 - River Koshi

The Koshi River is also called Sapta Koshi and is the largest river of Nepal and the largest tributary of the River Ganges. The Koshi drains the region lying east of Gosainsthan to west of Kanchangjunga, covering a total drainage area of 60 400 km², of which about 47% lies in Nepal (Dixit, 1995). The rivers Tamurkoshi, Arunkoshi, Dhudkoshi, Tamakoshi, Sunkoshi, Bhotekoshi and Indrawati are the main tributaries of the Koshi basin. Some of its major tributaries such as the rivers Arunkoshi and Bhotekoshi are antecedent to Himalayas and originate in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. The Koshi has steep gradient in the mountains and hills while on the plains it forms numerous channels. It carries a high silt load and forms sandbars and islands. Thus, it always tends to change its course and each year causes high flooding. The Koshi has an average flow of 1931 m³/sec. Being dammed by a 1150 m long barrage its water is being used for hydropower production as well as for irrigation. Under an extensive flood control programme 40 km and 12 km embankments were constructed along the eastern and western bank within Nepal. Extensive embankments of about 220 km length are constructed on either side of the river in India to confine the river flow and protect land beyond it from floods (Malla, 1995). To facilitate the upward and downward movement of aquatic animals, especially fish, the barrage has two fishways on its both sides. The effectiveness of these structures has yet to be fully evaluated.

RIVER GANDAKI

Fig. 3 - River Gandaki

The River Gandak is also called Sapta Gandaki. It originates in the north in the main Himalayan range. It drains the area lying in-between Gosainsthan (north of Kathmandu) to Dhaulagiri region, covering total drainage area of 34 960 km², of which 90% lies in Nepal (Dixit, 1995). Its major tributaries are Trishuli, Budhi Gandak, Marshyangdi, Madi, Seti Gandak, Daraudi and Kali Gandak. Of these the Kali Gandak is antecedent to Himalayas as it originates in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. The River Gandaki spreads out at Narayanghat, a doon valley of Chitwan, and after a short run it enters the Indo-Gangetic plains at Tribeni in Bihar, India. The River Gandaki has an average flow of 283 m³/sec (Uprety, 1993). It has a barrage to regulate the flow of water for irrigation and hydroelectric power production. Two irrigation canals take off from either side of the barrage. In aggregate, the irrigation canals irrigate 57 900 ha of land of Nepal and over 1.8 million hectares of land in India. The project also generates 15 000 KW of power. The barrage has no fishway.

RIVER KARNALI

Fig. 4 - River Karnali

The Karnali River originates from the southern region of Mansarovar and Rokas Lake in Tibet. It covers a total drainage area of 44 000 km² of which 773 km² lies in Tibet and 43 227 km² in Nepal (Dixit, 1995). It drains the Far-West Development Region of Nepal through its tributary rivers Sano Bheri, Thulo Bheri, Tila, Mugu Karnali, Humla Karnali, River Burhi Ganga and River Seti (west). The River Karnali has an average flow of 510 m³/sec (Uprety, 1993). The hydropower potential of the river has been estimated at 32 000 MW (Shrestha, 1969).

RIVER MAHAKALI

Fig. 5 - River Mahakali

The River Mahakali originates in high mountains of Himalaya of Nepal and it flows south forming western international boundary between Nepal and India. In the upper region of the river, it flows in deep gorge. The river basin has a total drainage area of 15 640 km². The river has three major tributaries; rivers Chamelia, Surnayagad and Rongun Khola (Sharma, 1997). The river has also a barrage to regulate the flow of water for irrigation and hydroelectric power purposes.

Medium rivers

The second category of rivers from east to west are the rivers Mechi, Kankai, Kamala, Bagmati, Tinau, Rapti (west), and Babai. They originate in high mountains of Himalaya or Mahabharat ranges and are fed by annual precipitation as well as sub-surface drainage. These rivers are perennial but are characterized by a wide seasonal fluctuation in discharge.

Minor rivers

The third category rivers are many but they are small and originate from Siwalik or Bhabhar ranges. These rivers are mainly rain-fed. Most of these rivers have less than 350 km² catchment area and are characterized by little or no flow of water during the dry season (ADB/HMG, 1982). These rivers have highest discharges during the monsoon season.

Fig. 6 - Network of rivers in Nepal

2.2. Lakes

A number of medium and small lakes are scattered throughout the country ranging from sub-tropical warmer areas to freezing altitudes. The lakes located in the high mountains are glacial in origin and are less productive compared to mid-hill tectonic lakes and the lowland ox-bow lakes. Information on the high altitude lakes and their fish fauna is meager compared to mid-hill lakes, as no biological study has been carried out. Out of many high altitude lakes, the Mahendra Tal (Lake Rara) is the biggest lake. Biology and limnology of this lake has been studied (Ferro, 1978; Swar, 1979; Terashima, 1984). The lake has three endemic fish species (Terashima, 1984), while some of the other glacier water lakes, e.g. Phoksundo and Gosainsthan, probably have no fish. There are many small lakes at high altitude. Out of the 90 high altitude lakes from 4 000 to 6 000 m of Khumbu (Mt. Everest) region, 69 lakes have been recently mapped and had studied their limnological and biological parameters (Tartari et. al., 1998; Manca et. al., 1998; Lami et. al., 1998). These studies do not mention the presence of any fish in these lakes. Much studied tectonic lakes of Pokhara valley - Lake Phewa (523 ha), Begnas (328 ha) and Rupa (135 ha) have well established aquaculture and capture fishery (Rai, 1995). From the lakes of Pokhara, 25 indigenous fishes have been reported (Ferro and Badgami, 1980; Pokharel, 1999).

2.3 Reservoirs

The first commissioned man-made reservoir for hydropower was Indra Sarovar at Kulekhani, with water surface area of 220 ha. The reservoir fish have been studied and there is now a well established fishery. The future development plans of hydropower and irrigation expansion envisage an increase in the number of reservoirs to eventually cover 153 200 ha (Pradhan, 1987), thus offering a great scope for expansion of fisheries, including aquaculture.

2.4 Other water bodies

Wetlands and waterlogged areas, paddy fields and village ponds of various sizes are scattered throughout the country and represent a considerable area of water bodies. Such aquatic habitats are often reconnected with rivers during monsoon floods and are rich in fish.

3. FISH RESOURCES

The distribution of fish in the Eastern/Assam and Western/Kumaon Himalayan region within the territory of India has been studied by a number of ichthyologists, including Hamilton (1822), Day (1878-81), McClelland (1839), Shaw and Shebbeare (1937), Hora (1951, 1952), Menon (1954, 1964), Srivastava (1968) and Jayaram (1981, 1999). However, the Nepal Himalayan region was left out as then Nepal was closed to the outsiders. The lack of information on the distribution of fish within Nepal always caused difficulties in drawing conclusions on their geographical distribution along the southern region of Himalaya. In those days no mission besides political was allowed to enter the country. Even under such conditions, some of the members of the political missions made their best effort to collect information and samples of fish from various water bodies. However, the information on fish fauna was confined along the trek route to Kathmandu and adjacent areas due to restrictions on movements of foreigners. More recently the fish fauna of vaarious water bodies has been studied by a number of developmental as well as educational institutions and individual biologists and ichthyologists. These studies have added a new records as well as new species to the country list.

3.1 Review of literature

The oldest report of fish of Nepal dates back to the year 1793, however, the credit of scientific record goes to Hamilton for his work of 1822. In the 19th century a number of other ichthyologists, including McClelland (1839), Gunther (1861), Beaven (1877) and Day (1889) studied the fish fauna of Nepal. In the 20th century, Regan (1907) studied seven fish species sent to him by Dr. N.Annadalei, India, out of which five species were reported from Nepal. These fish were collected by Hodgard on behalf of the Indian Museum, with the support of the then British Legation in Nepal in 1906. The fish samples were collected from Kathmandu and adjacent areas like Sundarijal and Pharping. Out of the reported fish species, one species Diptichus annandalei sp. nov. was found then new to science (it is now considered as synonymous to Schizothorax richardsonii). Hora (1937) also studied 158 fish species from Hulchowk, Mugling, Nagarkot and Sundarijal collected on his request by the Resident, British Legation in Nepal. A list of 52 fish species was made for the River Koshi, Eastern Nepal, by Menon (1949).

After 1951 fish and fisheries were studied by a number of people, e.g. Taft (1955), DeWitt (1962), Menon (1962), Thapa and Rajbanshi (1968), Majpuria and Shrestha, J. (1968), Bhatt (1970), and Atkinson (1974). Shrestha, J. (1978) studied the fish fauna of Nepal and reported 118 fish species out of which she described two new species and one sub-species (Barilius jalkapoorei sp. nov., Lepidocephalichthys nepalensis sp. nov., and Pseudeutropius murius batarensis sub sp. nov.). Shrestha, S. et. al. (1979) have reported 82 fish species from downstream of the River Bagmati. Ferro and Badagami (1980) reported 22 fish species from lakes Begnas and Rupa in Pokhara valley while McGladdery et al. (1980) reported 62 fish species from the Gandak River system of Chitwan valley. Robert (1980, 1982) studied the genera Macrognathus and Wallago. Jayaram (1981) reported 106 species under 61 genera, 21 families and 8 orders from Nepal of which one species Myersglanis blythi Day has been specified as being endemic in Nepal. The first compilation of the reported fish fauna for the Central or Nepal Himalaya within the boundary of the Kingdom of Nepal for the period 1793-1982 was prepared, and it contained 171 fish species, of which 164 were indigenous and 7 exotic (Rajbanshi, 1982). Terashima (1984) reported three new species endemic to Mahendra Tal (Lake Rara). Edds (1985) has further reported a list of 111 and 113 native fish species from the River Kali Gandak/Narayani River and the waters of the Royal Chitwan National Park, Chitwan, respectively. Jha and T. K. Shrestha (1986) have studied fish fauna of the River Karnali and have reported 57 fish species under 38 genera, 19 families and 9 orders from the River Rapti and the River Narayani.

Shrestha, T. K. (1990) has recorded 108 fish species from the River Koshi, 102 fish species from the Gandak, 74 fish species from the Karnali, 82 fish species from the Bagmati (downstream reach near Karmaiya), 34 fish species from the Trishuli and 69 fish species from the Mahakali. Shrestha, T. K. (1990) has also stated that 130 species of fish occur in the snow-fed rivers and mountain lakes of the Nepalese highlands. Talwar and Jhingran (1991) have reported 96 fish species representing 19 families and 5 orders from Nepal in their book "Inland Fishes of India and Adjacent Countries". A number of other workers including Kadga (1989), Shrestha, T. K. (1991), and Shah et. al. (1992) have explored the lower stream of the River Arun in eastern Nepal and have reported 46 fish species from there. Ormedo et. al. (1994) has assessed the hydrobiological changes along an altitudinal transect of eighteen to twenty three tributaries in 600 - 3750 m altitude. In adjacent river systems (six streams of Likhu Khola valley) of central Nepal they reported Neolisocheilus hexagonolepis (McClell.), Puntius conchonius (Ham.), Nemacheilus rupicola (McClell.), Ophiocephalus gachua (Ham), Barilius spp. and Garra spp. An Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) study of the Ilam Hydroelectric Project has reported the presence of 14 fish species in Puwa Khola of Ilam (Chaudhury, 1994). A leaflet of Applied Data basis for integrated Biodiversity Conservation in Nepal has reported a total of 179 fish species (The Mountain Institute, 1995). Shrestha, J. (1994) has reported a total of 188 fish species from Nepal, out of which 179 indigenous and 9 exotic. But in 1985 Shrestha, J. (1995) listed only 185 species, representing 11 orders. Shrestha, T.K. (1995) records a total of 183 species, out of which 173 indigenous and 10 exotic fish species. Out of the reported exotic fish, two species - Oncorhynchus rhodurus Jordon et Mcgregor and Salmo trutta L. do not exist presently in the country. Subba (1995) has reported a new record on the occurrence of a hill stream fish Olyra longicaudata McClelland from a tributary of the River Trijuga, a tributary of the Koshi River, Saptari district, Eastern Nepal.

An Environment Impact Assessment (EIA): Study of a Hydroelectric Project on River Kali Gandaki, has reported 57 fish species (Shrestha, T. K., 1996). Subba and Ghosh (1996) have reported a new record of the pigmy barb - Puntius phutunio (Ham.) from the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve's lowland catchment area. Smith et al. (1996) have studied aquatic biodiversity in the Karnali and Narayani River basins of Nepal and have recorded 141 fish species (including Glyptothorax ribeiroi synonymous to Laguvia ribeiroi), of which 121 and 134 fish species have been reported from the Karnali and Gandaki rivers, respectively. However, an Environment Impact Assessment Study of the Upper-Karnali Hydropower Project has reported 48 fish species from the project area (Shrestha, T. K., 1997). A study on the Kulekhani Phase - III Project has reported only 8 fish species (Anonymous, 1997). Another EIA Study on Dudh Koshi Hydroelectric Project has recorded 40 fish species from the River Dudh Koshi (Shrestha, T. K., 1998). An EIA study for the Tamur Hydropower Project has reported the presence of 19 fish species in the River Tamur (Shrestha, J. and Swar, 1998). Bhagat (1998) has studied fish of the Morang district of eastern Nepal and has reported 86 fish species. A study on Likhu - IV Hydroelectric Project has reported only 11 fish species (Thakur, 1998), and study on Budhi Ganga Hydropower Project has listed 18 fish species (Shrestha, J. et al., 1998). Another EIA Study Report on Melamchi Diversion Scheme (MDS) shows the presence of 32 fish species (Shrestha, J., 1999). A study on 'Cold Water Fish and Fisheries in Nepal' has reported 59 indigenous and 2 exotic fishes species (Shrestha, J., 1999). A study on the "Fish Bio-diversity of the Lakes of Pokhara Valley" has reported 25 fish species from the seven lakes of Pokhara (Pokharel, 1999). An EIA study for the Bheri - Babai Hydroelectric Project has reported 46 fish species out of which 21 fish species for the River Bheri and 19 fish species for the River Babai (Shrestha, B. C., 1999). A study for the West - Seti Hydroelectric Project has reported 13 fish species (Rai, 2000). In his recent book "The Fresh Water Fishes of the Indian Region", Jayaram (1999) has reported 108 fish species from Nepal.

3.2 Diversity, distribution and adaptations of indigenous cold water fish

Information on the distribution of the indigenous fish is not yet comprehensive as many streams and rivers have not been studied. A compilation of cold water fish for mountains, high hills and hilly areas gives 76 indigenous fish species representing 7 families (for details see Annex 1). The fish classification follows that of Jayaram (1999).

The family Cyprinidae dominates with 46 species, followed by Sissoridae (sucker catfish) with 13 species, and Balitoridae (loaches) with 6 species. Psilorhynchidae and Cobitidae are represented with 4 species each, Schilbeidae has 2 species, and Amblycepidae is represented by a single species.

The cold waters of hill region have fish fauna rich in species and numbers, while the waters of the mountain region (Inner-Himalaya) have a poorer fish fauna due to low water temperature and fast current which may be torretial in places. In the cold waters of the mountain region Schizothorax and Schizothoraichthys are the dominant fish, followed by Glyptothorax, and the small loaches of Balitoridae group. In the cold waters of high hills the above mentioned fish species are accompanied by the cyprinids Tor, Neolissocheilus and Barilius, followed by Glyptothorax, and in the hill region besides the above species appear Chagunius, Semiplotus, Botia, Clupisoma and Amblyceps. The overlapping of species increases at low or lower altitude rather than at higher altitude and it also varies seasonally. A large number of Schizothoracinae migrates from the mountain region to the hill and low-hill region during winter to avoid low temperatures in higher streams, and fish of lower streams migrate upstream during summer to spawn.

Amongst the recorded fish, one species varies from other in shape, size and weight. Some of the fish are small and may weigh a few grammes, e.g. Danio, Nemacheilus and Schistura, while the biggest fish range to over one metre, e.g. Bagarius, and weigh over 200 kg. Most of the indigenous fish have not yet been domesticated for aquaculture.

The fish also show diversity on the basis of their feeding habits, ranging from herbivorous to larvivorous and from insectivorous to omnivorous. Under aquaculture conditions the herbivorous and omnivorous fish can be produced more economically as food fish than the carnivorous fish. In cold waters there are less predatory fish and predation on other fish is considerably lower than in warm waters.

Some indigenous cold water fish species have special adaptations for the fast water current. The genera Nemacheilus and Schistura are small in size, while Schizothorax, Schizothoraichthys and Tor have developed conical or pointed head with slender and strong tail.. Barilius have a laterally compressed body to resist the water current. Glyptothorax, Glyptosternum, Garra and some others have an adhesive organ on the ventral side of the flattened head to get attached to a rock. Bagarius prefers deep water pools. Schizothoraichthys niger (Hickel) and S. curviforns (Heckel) reported from the River Trishuli in Central Nepal have resemblance with the fish of Kashmir, India and Afghanistan.

3.3 Endemic fish

Out of the reported 9 endemic fish species of Nepal, the following 5 fish species inhabit cold waters:

The last three endemic fish species have been reported from Mahendra Tal (Lake Rara), situated at an altitude of 2 990 m. (Terashima, 1984). More exploratory studies may discover more endemic species.

3.4 Status of cold water fish

No fish species has yet been officially listed as protected by His Majesty's Government of Nepal. The leaflet on "Endangered Wildlife Nepal's Threatened Animals" in the IUCN Red list, 1994, as well as "Nepal's Flora and Fauna" in the current CITES list, 1995, have not shown a single fish species under alarming status. So far no specific study has been conducted to assess this issue. An EIA study on Ilam hydroelectric project has reported 14 fish species from Puwa Khola out of which 2 species (Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis and Tor tor) and one species (Anguilla bengalensis) has been claimed as endangered and threatened fish species, respectively (Chaudhary, 1994). Shrestha, J. (1994) has not listed any fish under threat in her book " Fishes, Fishing Implements and Methods of Nepal", but she has expressed a potential threat to Tor, Neolissocheilus and Schizothorax from the increasing number of hydropower projects. In the study on "Enumeration of the Fishes in Nepal" under the Bio-diversity Profile Project, she concluded that 34 fish species (about 18 % of the total reported fish species) are threatened (endangered -1, rare - 24 and vulnerable - 9). The study has further recommended legal protection for ten fish species: Tor tor as endangered, Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis, Chagunius chagunio, Tor putitora, Danio rerio, Schizothorax plagiostomus, S. richardsonii, Schizothoraichthys progastus, Psilorhynchus pseudecheneis and Anguilla bengalensis as vulnerable (Shrestha, J., 1995). Shrestha, T. K. (1995) in his book "Fish catching in the Himalayan Waters of Nepal" has described 22 species as rare and 26 species as pristine rare fish species. An EIA Study for the Kali Gandak "A" Hydroelectric Project has listed three species (Tor tor, T. putitora and Amblycesp mangois) as endangered and five species (Schizothorax richardsonii, Schizothoraichthys progastus, Euchiloglanis hodgarti, Anguilla bengalensis and Rita rita) as threatened. Most of the listed fish are from the cold waters of high Himalaya. A study on the "Conservation Status of the Inland Fish Fauna of Nepal" has not spelled out any fish under threat or alarm conditions. However, this author endorses the general view of sharp depletion of fish stocks in many water bodies around densely populated areas and development projects (Rajbanshi, 1996). The deteriorating environment, increased industrial activities with a consequent draining of the industrial waste in rivers and lakes, construction of hydropower dams without any appropriate and adequate provision for fish migrations, and indiscriminate killing of indigenous fish using illegal fishing methods are considered to be responsible for the depletion of the indigenous fish.

3.5 Economically important indigenous fish of Nepal

3.5.1 Fish as food

Culturally, fish is considered as an auspicious item in Nepal. Thus fish is used in all social and religious ceremonies. A fish dish is always considered a delicacy and valued food in the Nepalese society. Of the cold water fish, the following species have a good economic value:

Tor tor, Tor putitora, Tor mosal, Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis, Naziritor chilynoides, Chagunius chagunio, Labeo dero, L. angra, Barilius barila, B. barna, B. guttatus, B. bola, B. bendelisis, Semiplotus semiplotus, Schizothorax richardsonii, S. sinuatus, Schizothoraichthys macrophthalmus, S. nepalensis, S. raraensis, S.esocinus, S. labiatus, Schizothoraichthys nige,r Clupisoma garua, Bagarius bagarius, and B. yarelli.

These economically important fish are famous for their value as food, sport/recreational fishery, decorative/aquarium value, and academic value. Fish of food and sport value are usually larger while the fish of decorative and academic value are small. But there is no bar on the species and its size for its consumption. Cold water fish are considered tastier than other fish, and are therefore preferred to warm water fish and in high demand. Because of this, cold water fish always fetch a good market price in rural as well as urban markets. Schizothorax, Schizothoraichthys, Clupisoma, Barilius, Tor and Neolissocheilus are considered of exceptionally good quality food. Asla (Schizothorax and Schizothoraichthys) and Jalkapoor (Barilius guttatus) have a long tradition of being a delicacy.

Fish are mostly consumed fresh but in case of surplus catches they are sun dried and smoked. The sun dried and smoked fish are also considered a delicacy and are in high demand. They fetch very good price in the markets.

The capture fishery for cold water fish is at subsistence level, not well organised, and widely scattered throughout the country. and is not well organized. No reliable catch statistics are available, but effort is being made to establish a database, which would include information on fish catch, fish species composition, number of fishermen and families involved in cold water capture fisheries.

More information is also needed on the biology, behavior, reproduction, domestication and culture of cold water fish. Studies on the aquaculture potential of Tor, Neolissocheilus, Schizothorax, Schizothoraichthys and Barilius are in progress.

3.5.2 Sport and recreational fishery

The cold water fish Tor tor, T. putitora, T. mosal, Neolissocheilus, Schizothorax, Schizothoraichthys and Barilius are well known by anglers. These fish migrate downstream in winter and upstream in summer seeking rapid current. They are very strong and grow to big size. Schizothorax, Schizothoraichthys and Barilius are small but active, in which respect they are similar to trout. Therefore the first two are also called "snow trout" and Barilius is known as "Himalayan trout". The smaller fish do not fight as well as Tor and neolissocheilus and it is easy to land them into net. Therefore, it is said that the small-sized fish are exciting to angle until they bite while Tor and Neolissocheilus are most exciting once they bite as it requires a good fight to land them in net.

For catching the snow trout the local people have invented a simple loop made of monofilament thread. The fishing method is called "looping of Asla" and while simple it is an effective method of fishing in hill streams. It is in wide use by the locals fishing the hill streams of Central Nepal (Rajbanshi, 1976). While some water bodies have regulated fishing with license, fishing in most mountain and hill streams and rivers is free.

Sport and recreational fishery can bee further developed with the involvement of the local population which would benefit from job opportunities and income. With the increased job and income opportunities in the north, southward migration of the local people seeking employment opportunities could be reduced.

3.5.3 Fish of decorative and academic values

The fish of hill region such as Nemacheilus and Botia. are not multicolored as some fish of the warm tropical waters, but their peculiar morphology and coloration are of interest to aquarists. Morphological structure, especially adaptations to fast current as seen in a number of species, are of academic interest.

3.6 Future opportunities for indigenous fish

Effort should focus on the development of aquaculture technologies to provide stocking material for enhancing fish stocks in rivers, streams and lakes, as well as to initiate their culture. Good stocks of cold water fish in rivers would support the development of sport and recreational fisheries, and this would assist with the development of ecotourism in remote areas. Aquaculture of cold water fish species and production of aquarium fish would lead to employment opportunities and to raising living standard through marketing the produce. This would help in slowing down the outward migration of the hill people seeking employment ouside the region.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Nepal consists in the south of a strip of very productive land called Terai, bordered in the north by hills with valleys, then of middle and high hills and snow covered mountains further north. The hills and mountains are a major source of water. The water resources appear in a diverse form and support a diverse fish fauna. There are 92 indigenous cold fish species in Nepal. The family Cyprinidae dominates with 46 species, followed by the family Sisoridae with 13 species and the family Balitoridae with 6 species. Some of the Nepal cold water fish species show a resemblance with the fish from Kashmir of India and Afghanistan.

Five fish species are endemic in the cold waters in Nepal. Three of them are found in the high altitude lake Mahendra Tal (Rara Lake - Rara National Park) at 2 990 m. Fish fauna of high altitude water bodies is still poorly known and requires more studies. Schizothorax, Schizothoraichthys, Glyptothorax, Nemacheilus and Schistura always dominate the waters of mountains and high hills even at low water temperatures, fast flow and torrential conditions. At the low or lower altitude they are accompanied by Tor, Neolissocheilus, Barilius, Chagunius, Semiplotus, Botia, Clupisoma and Amblycep. There is some seasonal variation of species composition.

The present list of fish of Nepal has been compiled from a number of publications and reports and it should not be considered as final. This will require a systematic survey of all water bodies of Nepal. Not all water bodies in high altitude and rugged mountains and hills have been visited yet and further investigation are needed to complete this task.

In Nepalese society the fish is considered as an auspicious item, and is used in all social and religious ceremonies. A fish dish is always considered a delicacy as well as valuable food. Cold water fish has a special value and is considered tastier than other fish. Other fish, especially Tor and Neolissochielus are are valued as sport fish by anglers. In markets cold water fish fetch a good price. Capture and culture of cold water fish, as well as angling are the most promissing avenues for providing not only fish as food but also commercial opportunities for the local people.

The purpose of this paper is to assist in charting a future course of action for the development of cold water fisheries for economic growth of the ever overlooked mountain and hill regions of this region.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, the Chairman, Executive Director, Nepal Agriculture Research Council, the Vice- Chairman, Organizing Committee of Symposium, the Director-General, Agriculture Department, and the Member of Organizing Committee for entrusting me to prepare this paper. I highly appreciate the support and suggestions given to me by Dr. D. B. Swar, Fisheries Program Director, Mr. D. M. Singh and Mr. G. B. Pradhan, Fisheries Development Officers, Directorate of Fisheries Program, and Dr. A. K. Rai, Chief, Fisheries Research Division, Nepal Agriculture Research Council. Sincere thanks are also due to my colleague Prof. Dr. J. Shrestha, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, for providing recent information on fish taxonomy, and Mr. Pradeep Mool, Remote Sensing Analyst of ICIMOD, Kathmandu, for providing the map of the network of rivers in Nepal. Special thanks are due to Mr. Surya Prashad Pandey, Senior Scientist, and Mr. Suresh Rai, Senior Scientist, Soil Science Division, Nepal Agriculture Research Council, Khumaltar, for their valued help in preparation of the maps.

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Distribution List of Cold Water Fishes in Nepal

APPENDIX 1

¹Synonymous to Barbus chagunio - Taft (1955) and DeWitt (1962), Puntius spilopholus - Menon (1962), and Catla chagunio - Shrestha (1978).

²Synonymous to Labeo almorai Chaudhuri - Menon (1962), Labeo tezpurensis Chaudhuri - Menon (1962).

³Synonymous to Labeo kunki Chaudhuri - Menon (1962), Labeo rilli Chaudhuri - Menon (1962).

⁴Synonymous to Lissocheilus hexagonolepis(McClell.) ÐH ora (1937), Barbus hexagonalepis (McClell.) - Taft (1955) and DeWitt (1962), Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis - Menon (1962).

⁵Synonymous to Tor progeneius (McClell.) - Menon (1962).

⁶Synonymous to Cyprinon semiplotum (McClelland) - Shrestha (1995)

⁷S ynonimous to Barilius(Opsarius) bola - Hora (1937), Barilius(Raiamas) bola (Ham.) - Taft (1955), Raiamas bola (Ham.) - Shrestha (1995)

⁸Synonymous to Danio (Brachydanio) rerio(Ham.) - Menon (1962).

⁹Synonymous to Laubuca laubuca - Hora (1937) and Taft (1955)

¹⁰ Synonymous to Chela gora(Ham.)

¹¹ Synonymous to Chela argentea(Day)

¹² Synonymous to Chela bacaila(Ham.)

¹³ Synonymous to Garra modestus(Gray)

¹⁴ Synonymous to Schizothorax plagiostomus(Heckel), Schizothorax molesworthii(Chaudhuri) & Dipticus annandalei or Schizothoraichthys annandalei Regan.

¹⁵ Synonymous to Schizopyge progastus - Edds (1986)

¹⁶ Synonymous to Nemacheilus botia(Hamilton -Buchanan)

¹⁷ Synonymous to Nemacheilus beavani (Gunther)

¹⁸ Synonymous to Nemacheilus rupecola rupecola(McClelland)

¹⁹ Synonymous to Nemacheilus shebbearie(Hora)

²⁰ Synonymous to Pangio pangio(Hamilton-Buchanan) - Shrestha (1995)

²¹ Synonymous to Lepidocephalichthys guntia(Hamilton-Buchanan)-E dds (1986) & L. nepalensis Shrestha - (Menon, 1992)

²² Synonymous to Glyptothoras horai(Shaw & Shebbeare)-(Jayaram, 1999)