Chapter 2
Zimbabwe's natural regions and farming systems

Natural regions

Zimbabwe is divided into five agro-ecological regions, known as natural regions (Figure 1), on the basis of the rainfall regime, soil quality (Figure 2) and vegetation among other factors. The quality of the land resource declines from Natural Region (NR) I through to NR V (Moyo, 2000; Vincent and Thomas, 1961). Table 1 describes these natural regions and their farming systems.

Natural Region I

This region lies in the east of the country. It is characterized by rainfall of more than 1 000 mm/year (most of which falls throughout the year), low temperatures, high altitude and steep slopes. The country's timber production is located in this region. The plantations are owned mainly by the State through the Forestry Commission and by multinationals. There are several small owner-operated plantations and sawmills. NR I is ideally suitable for intensive diversified agriculture and livestock production, mainly dairy farming. Common crops are tropical crops such as coffee and tea, deciduous fruits, such as bananas and apples, and horticultural crops, such as potatoes, peas and other vegetables. Flowers, such as proteas (Proteaceae spp.), are grown for export.

TABLE 1
Description of the Natural regions of Zimbabwe

Source: Adapted from Moyo, 2000; Vincent and Thomas, 1961.

Natural Region II

This region is located in the middle of the north of the country. The rainfall ranges from 750 to 1 000 mm/year. It is fairly reliable, falling from November to March/April. Because of the reliable rainfall and generally good soils, NR II is suitable for intensive cropping and livestock production. It accounts for 75-80 percent of the area planted to crops in Zimbabwe. The cropping systems are based on flue-cured tobacco, maize, cotton, wheat, soybeans, sorghum, groundnuts, seed maize and burley tobacco grown under dryland production as well as with supplementary irrigation in the wet months. Irrigated crops include wheat and barley grown in the colder and drier months (May-September). NR II is suitable for intensive livestock production based on pastures and pen-fattening utilizing crop residues and grain. The main livestock production systems include beef, dairy, pig and poultry. Prior to 2000, the region was dominated by the large-scale farming subsector characterized by highly mechanized farms of 1 000-2 000 ha under freehold title and owner-operated. Following the agrarian and land reform programmes initiated in 1999/2000, a large proportion of the farms were subdivided into smaller units and allocated to new farmers under the A1 and A2 small-scale farming system.

Natural Region III

NR III is located mainly in the mid-altitude areas of the country. It is characterized by annual rainfall of 500-750 mm, mid-season dry spells and high temperatures. Production systems are based on drought-tolerant crops and semi-intensive livestock farming based on fodder crops. The predominant farming system is smallholder agriculture. Large-scale farming accounts for 15 percent of the arable land production, most of the land being used for extensive beef ranching (Roth, 1990). Smallholder agriculture in the communal farming areas is under relatively intensive cropping systems. The main crops are maize (the staple foodgrain) and cotton (a major cash crop). NR III is suitable for the production of groundnuts and sunflowers as cash crops.

Natural Region IV

NR IV is located in the low-lying areas in the north and south of the country. The characteristics of the region are: annual rainfall of 450-650 mm, severe dry spells during the rainy season, and frequent seasonal droughts. Although NR IV is considered unsuitable for dryland cropping, smallholder farmers grow drought-tolerant varieties of maize, sorghum, pearl millet (mhunga) and finger millet (rapoko). NR IV is ideally suitable for cattle production under extensive production systems and for wildlife production.

Natural Region V

NR V covers the lowland areas below 900 m above sea level in both the north and south of the country. The rainfall is less than 650 mm/year and highly erratic. Although NR V receives reasonable rainfall in the northern part of Zimbabwe along the Zambezi River, its uneven topography and poor soils make it unsuitable for crop production. Generally, NR V is suitable for extensive cattle production and game-ranching.

Although both NR IV and NR V are too dry for crop production, households on the communal lands in these regions grow grain crops (maize and millet) for their food security and some cash crops such as cotton. Crop yields are extremely low and the risk of crop failure is high in one out of three years (Rukuni and Eicher, 1994). Cattle and goat production are major sources of cash income.

Table 2 further subdivides the five NRs into 18 agro-ecological zones (AEZs) by including information on soils and on the probability of annual rainfall exceeding 500 mm.

Soil quality and fertility

Thompson and Purves (1978) give a comprehensive guide to the characteristics of factors determining the fertility of the soils of Zimbabwe. Generally, virgin soils in Zimbabwe are infertile and deficient in nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S). About 70 percent of Zimbabwe is covered with sandy soils, mostly derived from coarse granite. Sandy soils in the south are derived from gneiss. The northwest of the country has Triassic and Kalahari sands. Zimbabwe sandy soils are low in N, P, and S and in cation exchange capacity (CEC) owing to low clay and organic matter contents (Grant, 1967a, 1967b, 1970; Nyamapfene, 1981). In addition, the sandy soils are generally acidic. According to Grant (1970), many crops on granite sandy soils on the communal lands reveal multiple nutrient deficiencies of N, P and S as well as of magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K) and of micronutrients such as zinc (Zn).

S deficiency is endemic. Mg deficiency is more pronounced where the sandy soils are cropped using fertilizer NPK alone. Zn deficiency is encountered more in intensively cropped areas. The soils are inherently deficient in boron (B). Copper (Cu) deficiency occurs in irrigated lands. Generally, there is no iron (Fe) deficiency.

TABLE 2
Agro-ecological zones

Source: FAO & ACFD, 1999.

TABLE 3
Nitrogen percentage of different soil types

TABLE 4
Fertilizer nutrient requirements of soils of different fertility status

Source: AGRITEX, 1982.

As these soils are inherently of low fertility and subject to rapid depletion in fertility, regular applications of organic and inorganic fertilizers are necessary in order to obtain reasonable and sustainable yields. The soils need liming to correct soil acidity and then fertilizing to correct for low P and K levels.

The total N content of the soil varies greatly, being higher in higher rainfall areas than in lower rainfall areas, higher in wetland soils and heavy-textured soils than on sandy soils, higher in virgin soils than in cultivated soils, and lower in the subsoil than in the topsoil (Table 3).

Table 4 gives the nutrient requirements of soils of good, medium and low fertility status. Applications on a continuing basis are necessary for optimal economic production of most crops. However, for most of the farming households in the smallholder subsector, investment in soil fertility is low owing to financial constraints.

Characteristics and distribution of farming systems and farming units

Prior to 2000, there were four distinct farming systems or farming subsectors in Zimbabwe, determined by: agro-ecological factors, tenure systems, farm sizes, crop and livestock production systems, levels of technology use, management and income levels. The farming systems had also been determined by the political and historical development of the country during the 90 years of colonial and settler government. These systems were: communal lands, resettlement areas, small-scale commercial, and large-scale commercial (Table 5). The dominant subsectors, in terms of population size, area under production and agricultural output, were the large-scale commercial and the communal lands farming systems.

TABLE 5
Land tenure and characteristics of the farming systems

Source: Chenje, Sola and Paleczny, 1998.

Table 6 shows the number of farming units and distribution patterns of agricultural land per farming subsector in each NR prior to the agrarian reform. In 1999, commercial farmers occupied about 12 million ha, communal farmers 16 million ha, resettlement farmers 3.6 million ha, small-scale commercial farmers 1.4 million ha and state farms 0.1 million ha. The smallholder subsector consists of the communal, resettlement and small-scale commercial farmers.

The large-scale farms were located primarily in the areas of high agricultural and economic potential, in NRs I, II and III. One and a half million farming households in the communal lands farmed on about 49 percent of the country's agricultural land, of which more than 70 percent was in NRs IV and V. Thus, most of the communal lands are in the marginal agro-ecological regions. These are characterized by: (i) low rainfall, averaging 400-500 mm/year; (ii) severe dry spells in the rainy season; and (iii) shallow soils of low fertility. Such conditions are very marginal for the production of the major crops, even for drought-resistant grain crops such as sorghum and millets.

TABLE 6
Major features of farming subsectors up to 1999

TABLE 7
A1 and A2 farming units created from acquired large-scale commercial farms, 2003

Source: Government of Zimbabwe, 2003.

In the 1999/2000 season, the Government embarked on its agrarian reform programme. This entailed redistribution of land from the commercial farming subsector to new farmers. The Government moved to acquire 12.4 million ha of the 16 million ha in large-scale agriculture. This land came from 6 796 large-scale farms. Two new categories of farming subsectors were created, namely A1 and A2 farmers. A total of 127 192 households were settled under the A1 model, which consisted of demarcated villages with each household allocated five arable hectares and with communal grazing. The A2 model was based on self-contained farming units. A total of 12 943 individuals were allocated A2 model farms. Table 7 shows the number of farming units under each model per province as at March 2003.

In December 2000, the Government published Structural Instrument No. 288, which prescribed maximum farm sizes for all the NRs (Table 8).

TABLE 8
Farm classification and maximum farm size following the 2000 land/agrarian reform

Source: MLARS, 2000.

Landholding, land use and cropping patterns in communal lands

Rainfall is the major determinant of the agricultural production patterns in Zimbabwe. Most crops are planted in November/December at the beginning of the rains and harvested between April and June. Winter wheat, barley and various horticultural products are grown in the dry season under irrigation. Irrigation schemes are also important in supplementing the production of wheat, tobacco, maize, cotton, soybeans, groundnuts and coffee.

The proportion of land allocated to food crops varies with the AEZ, availability or size of land, and farm productivity. In general, farm households in NRs II and III allocate 40-50 percent of the arable land under cultivation to food crops. The proportion rises to 60-70 percent in NRs IV and V.

Cropping patterns and land allocation to various crops within the communal area subsector by NR suggest the following salient features (Ashworth, 1990; Roth, 1990; Masters, 1991; National Early Warning, AGRITEX, 1994; MLAWD, 1993):

• Maize is a dominant crop across all AEZs, occupying 50-70 percent of the cropped area in NRs I, IIA, and IIB, and 40-50 percent of the cropped area in NRs III, IV and V

• Cotton is dominant in NR III.

• Small grains, particularly sorghum and pearl millet, are dominant in NRs IV and V

• Nationally, the major crops are maize, which occupies 45-50 percent of the cropped area, followed by pearl millet with 15-20 percent, sorghum with 10-15 percent and cotton with 7-10 percent.

• The dominance of maize and the small grains is a reflection of their importance as food crops for communal area households.

• Finger millet and sunflowers are widely grown in all NRs, except that the area of sunflower in NR I is relatively small, accounting for 2-4 percent of the cropped area. Finger millet is grown for home use while sunflowers are essentially a cash crop.

A comparative analysis of statistics on land allocated to each crop for the period 1980-1994 (National Early Warning Unit, AGRITEX, 1994) suggests:

• Maize area is fairly uniform across the communal areas in NRs IIA and IIB with an average of 1.75 ha. Maize areas are largest in relation to other crops in NRs IIA, IIB and III.

• Cotton areas are largest in relation to other crops in NR III.

• Small grains areas are largest in relation to other crops in NRs IV and V.

• Yields of all crops decrease from NR II to NRs IV and V

• The relative ratio of land allocation per crop and yield suggests that farmers in NRs IIA and IIB have a comparative advantage in the production of maize and cotton. Farmers in NR III have a comparative advantage in the production of cotton followed by maize. For farmers in NRs IV and V, their comparative advantage is in the production of small grains.