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I. GENERAL
COMMON NAME
Two types:
Levant or Soft Galbanum
Persian or Hard Galbanum
BOTANICAL NAME
Ferula galbaniflua
Ferula rubricaulis
Ferula ceratophylla
FAMILY
Umbelliferae
OTHER NAMES
Galbanum, Resinoid
CULTIVATION CONDITIONS
These tall herbs have not been cultivated but grow in Northern Iran (Ferula galbaniflua), Southern Iran (Ferula rubricaulis) and Turkestan (Ferula cera tophylla) (Guenther).
MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES
Iran (15 tonnes)
YIELD AND DESCRIPTION
Galbanum is the air dried extruded gum resin. The soft galbanum exists as tears, viscous, translucent and yellow to red in colour. The hard galbanum occurs as lumps and can be broken readily. The crude gum contains 'foots' consisting of sand, water, insects and chips of wood. In the heat of the summer it can be purified by straining. The natural material on steam distillation yields an oil, 15 - 25%. The strained gum can be extracted by solvent to form a resinoid. A 40 - 50% extract is obtained. Pourable grades of the resinoid are obtained by extracting the crude gum with a perfumery diluent such as diethyl phthalate, benzyl benzoate etc. The yields depend on the cleanliness of the gum.
MAIN USES
The oil is pale in colour with a powerful woody balsamic green fragrance and is used in classical perfumes to give a 'green' floral note.
The resinoid has a deeper fragrance than the oil and also has fixative properties skilfully used in some well known perfumes.
II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS
CULTIVATION
As yet this is entirely natural.
HARVESTING PERIOD
There is a lack of identifiable information.
HARVESTING METHODS
By women, when the crude extruded gum is required, usually in the winter. They collect for the exporters.
III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT, PRESERVATION, STORAGE
PRE-TREATMENT
PRESERVATION AND STORAGE
IV. PROCESSING
PROCESSING METHOD
Apart from the straining, most of the processing is carried out by European and American raw material processors.
Distillation is best carried out in stainless steel stills with direct steam. Water/Steam distillation can be done at source but the oil quality is poor. The extractions are to 'in house' requirements.
COMPOSITION OF OIL
A review of the published analysis of the oil has been given by Lawrence and by McAndrew and Michelkiewicz The oil has been frequently adulterated with pine oil distilled fractions.
EQUIPMENT
There is no identifiable information for the following areas: GENERAL, Other names, Major producing countries and Main uses; AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS, Harvesting period; POST HARVEST PRE-TREATMENT, PRESERVATION & STORAGE; PROCESSING, oil extraction, and nomenclature of product.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GUENTHER, E; "The Essential Oils" Vol 4. p 645 ISBN No 0-88275074-7
LAWRENCE, B.M; "Progress in Essential Oils" 'Perfumer and Flavorist' August/September 1978 vol 3, No 4 p 54
McANDREW, B.A; MICHALKIEWICZ, D.M; "Analysis of Galbanum Oils". Dev Food Sci. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publications 1988 v 18 pp 573 - 585
I. GENERAL
COMMON NAME
German Chamomile
BOTANICAL NAME
Matricaria chamomilla Linn. (Camomilla recutita L.)
FAMILY
Compositae
OTHER NAMES
Blue chamomile, Matricaria, Hungarian Chamomile, Raushert Chamomile, Mother Herb
CULTIVATION CONDITIONS
The herb is indigenous to Europe and was extensively cultivated in Germany, still the major user, where the name originates. It is also widespread in the remainder of Central Europe, particularly Hungary and Czechoslovakia. It has been successfully introduced to many other countries (Guenther).
This oil is not to be confused with Roman Chamomile (Arthemis nobilis) or Moroccan Chamomile (Ormims multicaulis). These are entirely different plants (Singh).
MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES
Egypt (1 tonne), France (1 tonne), Hungary (1 tonne), Bulgaria (700 kg), Portugal (500 kg), Czechoslavakia (100 kg) and the herb also in India, Brazil and Argentina.
YIELD AND DESCRIPTION
The oil is contained in the flower. The yield and quality are very dependent on the correct selection of harvest time, the location, the use of fertilizer (El-Hamidi) and the climatic conditions. The dried flowers are reported to contain between 0.3 and 1.3% oil, a typical figure being 0.65%.
The oil is a brilliant dark blue.
This colour is indicative of the freshness and age of the oil. Old oil will lose the liquid sheen, turning dark gray-green. The oil on ageing, and during distillation tends to form a deposit on the walls of metal containers.
The odour and the flavour are characteristically aromatic and camphoraceous; pharmaceutical as opposed to medicinal.
MAIN USES
Infusions are prepared from the herb flowering tops that are used as mild sedatives and digestive aids. The essential oil has several names (Oil of German Chamomile, Oil of Blue Chamomile, Oil of Matricaria, Oil of Raushert Chamomile and Mother Herb Oil) and is used in alcoholic beverages and as a general flavouring agent.
Pharmaceutical use of the oil for its anti-inflammatory, anti bacterial and fungicidal properties is well documented (Cardia Effects...). These properties have been attributed to both the chamazulene and bisabolol constituents.
In the 16th century Chamomile was used for the treatment of fevers. Chamomile drinks are today reported to be used for Cardiac conditions as well as for chronic gastritis, stomach spasms and diarrhoea (A). The medical properties are attributed to both the chamazulene and (-) alpha bisabolol contents.
II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS
CULTIVATION
In Europe and Argentina the herb is a summer crop. In India and Egypt it is a winter annual and is used as a fill-in between cereal crops (Atal). Where the oil is produced the flowers, after drying, are graded for export and the rejects become the essential oil raw material. Greater day length is reported to increase oil content and quality as well as chamazulene content.
Chamomile is grown from seed.
After 6 weeks the seedlings can be planted out in ridges 0.75 m x 0.25 m apart. Chamomile has shallow roots and so the plants have to be frequently irrigated. The soil has to be moist, but not flooded. Constant weeding is necessary until the chamomile 'mat' takes over. Chamomile is a very adaptable plant and responds to the local climate or altitude, growing from 300 to 1500 metes. Experiencing some freezing temperatures will not harm the plants, merely reducing the 'bloom' period. It is suitable for planting in saline soils (Singh). It has a high sodium uptake, thus regenerating the soil.
Insects - Aphids are a spring problem, while mildew, which would cause plant loss, is combatted by spraying with kerosene fractions or wettable sulphur (Reichling).
HARVESTING PERIOD
This is a continuous procedure once the chamomile is in bloom. In Egypt, it is picked by children on a 7 - 10 day rotation during January to April. Harvesting is best during temperatures of 22 - 25 degrees centigrade.
HARVESTING METHODS
By hand as indicated above. This is labour intensive and the harvesting method is adapted to suit the size of the operation.
Flower forks are used to pick the flowers and these have been converted for mechanical operation in Hungary and South America. The yield of flowers can be 4000/Ha.
III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT, PRESERVATION, STORAGE
PRE-TREATMENT
The flowers have to be dried immediately on picking. This cannot be done in the sun, but in the shade, turning occasionally to prevent browning. For large operations they are dried in a heated tunnel.
PRESERVATION
Preservation of the flowers is controlled by the moisture content reached during drying.
STORAGE
The herb, whether for use as such, or for oil production, should be stored in dry polyethylene lined bags. The oil must be stored cool, in full containers out of contact with light. When the oil is to be decanted the flasks or bottles should be well agitated.
IV. PROCESSING
PROCESSING METHODS
The flowers are usually graded before packing. The best quality whole flowers are sold as exportable herb, while the siftings and broken flowers are used for oil production.
Distillation of the flowers in modern steam stills takes between 4 -5 hours at 7 bar pressure. The Specific Gravity of the oil is very similar to that for water and the separation can be difficult with heavy emulsions formed. Some distillers add solvent to the receivers and later remove the solvent under vacuum.
COMPOSITION OF OIL
The principal component is chamazulene. This does not occur naturally in the oil but is formed during the steam distillation (Sandra). Typical analysis is given by Lawrence but this does indicate the wide variations obtained in the oil (Franz).
EQUIPMENT
Planting machinery for seedlings
Flower forks or adapted flower harvesters
Stainless steel distillation
Steam boiler
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ARCTANDER, S. "Perfume and Flavour Materials of Natural Origin" Private publication
ATAL, C.K; KAPUR, B.M; EDITORS "Cultivation of Matricaria chamomile" "Cultivation and Distillation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants". Regional Research Laboratory Jammu-tawi pp 653 - 8
"Cardia Effects of chamomile tea" Journal Clinical Pharmac 13 No 11/12 pp 445 - 495
EL-HAMIDI, A; SALEM, M; HAMDI, H.; "The Effect of Fertiliser Levels on Growth, Yield and Oil Production of Matricaria chamomilla" Lloydia 28 (3) 245 - 251 (Biol. Abstr. 47; 44502
FRANZ, Ch. "Content and composition of the Essential Oil in the Flower Heads of Matricaria chamomilla during the ontogenic development". Planta Med. 1979 36 (3) 282 - 3
GUENTHER, E. "The Essential Oils" Vol 5 p 438 ISBN 0-88275073-9
LAWRENCE, B.M; "Progress in Essential Oils" "Perfumer and Flavourist" 1987 February/March vol 12 No 1 p 35
REICHLING, J; AND OTHERS "Herbicides in Chamomile Cultivation" Acta Hortic 1978 (73) pp 331 - 8
SANDRA, P; BICCHI, C; EDITORS "Capillary Gas Chromatography in Essential Oil Analysis Chromatographic Methods". ISBN 3-7785-0860-1
SINGH, L.B. "Utilization of Saline-Alkali Soils for Agro-industry without Reclamation" Econ. Bot. 1970 24 (4) pp 439 - 42
I. GENERAL
COMMON NAME
Hexastylis
BOTANICAL NAME
Hexastylis arifolia
FAMILY
Aristolochiaceae
OTHER NAMES
Snakeroot, Snakeweed
CULTIVATION CONDITIONS
This is an evergreen herb found in North America, widely reported in North Carolina, occurring with associated species H. minus: H. virginica (Gonzales).
MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES
North America
No commercial production reported.
YIELD AND DESCRIPTION
A pale yellow oil with a strong aromatic odour. The leaf oil is reported to contain 70% safrole and the root oil 58% safrole
MAIN USES
The oil of Hexastylis arifolia has potential safrole uses as food flavour and is extracted both from the leaves and from the roots.
This material is closely related to the Japanese HETEROTROPA species (Hayashi).
II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS
CULTIVATION
None reported
HARVESTING PERIOD
As Hexastylis arifolia is an evergreen, harvesting is expected to be continuous.
HARVESTING METHODS
Not investigated
III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT, PRESERVATION, STORAGE
PRE-TREATMENT
Leaves can be dried. Roots triturated.
PRESERVATION
Not required, the oil is an antioxidant.
STORAGE
No special requirements other than for handling safrole (carcino genic).
IV. PROCESSING
PROCESSING METHOD
Steam distillation
COMPOSITION OF OIL (Hayashi)
Leaf Oil:
Safrole 70%
Methyl Eugenol
Methyl Isoeugenol
Root Oil:
Safrole 58%
Methyl Eugenol
Methyl Isoeugenol
EQUIPMENT
Normal steam distillation
There is no identifiable information for the following areas: PROCESSING, oil extraction, and nomenclature of products
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GONZALEZ, VALOIS-CARMELO "The ecology of Hexastylis arifolia, an evergreen herb in the North Carolina deciduous forest". Ann Arbor, Mich University Microfilm 1973 xiii 182 leaves
HAYASHI, NANAO; MAESHIMA, KAZASHI; AND KOMOE, HISASHI "Phenol Ethers of three North American Hexastylis Species" Phytochemistry, Vol 22 1983 No. 1 p 299
HAYASHI, NANAO; MAESHIMA, KAZUYKI; MVRAKAMI, TADAYUKI AND KOMAE, HISASHI "Chemosystematics of Japanese HETEROTROPA (Aristolochiaceae)" Z. Naturforsch 39c 1984 pp 705-709
I. GENERAL
COMMON NAME
High-geraniol Monarda
BOTANICAL NAME
Monarda fistulosa var. menthaefolia
FAMILY
Labiatea
OTHER NAMES
"Sweet" Monarda, Monharda fistulosa
CULTIVATION CONDITIONS
The genus Monarda is native to North America ranging from the Canadian prairies to the plateau of Michoacan in Mexico with Monarda fistulosa being the most widespread complex in this genus.
This is found in Quebec and across to British Columbia and then southwards to the Atlantic coast into Northern Mexico. In 1967
Scora examined 19 different species and varieties. These oils proved of little commercial interest, the major constituents being thymol and carvacrol. In 1972 Marshall and Scora examined two dissimilar forms of Monarda fistulosa var. menthae falia. The "normal" form contained thymol as the major constituent while the "sweet" form had geraniol as the major component. In 1977 Lawrence using modern analytical techniques confirmed these findings for "Sweet" monarda.
Cultivation of two strains was undertaken by Marshall and Chubey at the Research Station, Agri culture Canada, Morden, Man.
MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES
Canada (Full commercial production yet to be exploited - 2.0 tonnes / p.a.)
YIELD AND DESCRIPTION
A very pale sweet rose smelling oil is produced. Yields vary depending on the time of the harvest and the amount of wilting (Marshall, Mazza) with an average figure of 0.9% on a fresh weight basis with geraniol contents in excess of 90%. Yields of oil are reported at between 100 125 Kg/Ha.
MAIN USES
The oil is called Oil of Monarda fistulosa. It can be used as a perfumery material in its own right but is ideally fractionated for the production of natural geraniol. This geraniol will be competitive with synthetic geraniol.
II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS
CULTIVATION
Two hybrids, identified as Morden No. 3 and Morden No. 82-IT have been cultivated (Masse). Morden No. 3 is a triploid hybrid and can only be propagated asexually. Morden No. 82-IT is a tetraploid and can be propagated from seed.
The plants are established in June and have a life of 5 - 7 years. It grows best in fertile, well drained soil. It is drought tolerant.
HARVESTING PERIOD
Reportedly between 15 - 20 July during full bloom.
HARVESTING METHODS
As the oil is located in all parts of the plant harvesting is under taken using a forage harvester.
III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT, PRESERVATION, STORAGE
PRE-TREATMENT
The plants are managed in the same way as for mint, with the weeds controlled using the same mint herbicides.
PRESERVATION
When distilled the oil has a shelf life in excess of two years with out the addition of antioxidants.
STORAGE
Ideally stored in a cool, dark place, in well filled epoxy-coated containers.
IV. PROCESSING
PROCESSING METHOD
By hydrodistillation or hydro diffusion. The material can be distilled fresh, or wilted. Baled material gives a lower yield than expected (Simon). Hydrodiffusion was seen as an alternative to crude field distillation stills. Monarda fistulosa
COMPOSITION OF OIL (Lawrence)
Geraniol 90% (+/-2%) Other Alcohols 5% Aldehydes and Ketones 3.4% Esters 0.4%
EQUIPMENT
Forage Harvester
Field stills or Hydrodiffuser (a)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LAWRENCE, B.M. Perfumer and Flavorist "Monarda" Collective vol. 1979-80 pp 68-76
MARSHALL, H.H. AND SCORA, R.W. "A New Chemical Race of Monarda fistulosa" (Labiatae). Can. J. Bot. 50 1972 pp 1845-1849
MARSHALL, H.H. AND CHUBEY, B. B. "Monarda for Geraniol Production" Agriculture Canada, Canadex Horticulture Crops, Speciality Crop Production Report 258. 10 December 1983
MAZZA, G.; CHUBEY, B.B. AND KIEHN F "Essential Oil of Monarda fistulosa L. var.menthaefolia, a Potential Source of Geraniol". Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 2, 1987 pp 129-132
SIMON, D.Z.; BELIVEAU, J. AND AUBE C. "Extraction by Hydrodiffusion of the Essential Oil of Monarda fistulosa grown in the province of Quebec: Essay of Geraniol in the hydrodiffused oil". International journal of Crude Drug Research 24: 3 1986 pp 120122
(a) Hydrodiffuser supplied by Hydrodiffusion Services Ltd., 222 Shepherds Bush Road, London, W6 England
I. GENERAL
COMMON NAME
Juniapa. Hinojo Sabalero
BOTANICAL NAME
Piper auritum H. B. K.
FAMILY
Piperaceae
OTHER NAMES
Juniapa, Piper auritum
CULTIVATION CONDITIONS
Grows wild in abundance in open areas in tropical Central and Southern America. Has teen cultivated in Mexico, Vera Cruz State in trial plots by the Institute Nacional de Investigaciones Sobre Recursos Bioticos.
MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES
Panama and Brazil. No commercial production reported
YIELD AND DESCRIPTION
On steam distillation leaves give a mobile clear liquid with a characteristic odour of "root beer". Yield of oil has been reported at 0.17% with a safrole content of 70% (Gupta).
MAIN USES
As an alternative to sassafras oil or as a source of essential oil containing Safrole, the chemical raw material for the manufacture of Heliotropin (Fragrance material) and Piperonyl Butoxide (Pyrethum synergist).
In Panama it is used as a food condiment and as a fish bait (Joly). In Mexico it is used as a house plant because of the heart shaped colourful leaves.
II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS
CULTIVATION
Natural cultivation as secondary vegetation after clearing the high perennial evergreen forest.
HARVESTING PERIOD
Not reported
HARVESTING METHODS
By hand
III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT, PRESERVATION, STORAGE
PRE-TREATMENT
Wilting prior to distillation is required
PRESERVATION
None required
STORAGE
In good quality drums
IV. PROCESSING
PROCESSING METHOD
By hydrodistillation of the dried herb. Water/steam or steam distillation is satisfactory. The temperature of the condensate is critical as emulsion or top/bottom separation can result.
The sun dried exhausted herb can be utilized as a fuel.
COMPOSITION OF OIL
Safrole up to 90%
Terpenes
Forty components have been identified (Gupta)
EQUIPMENT
Harvesting equipment
Stills
Boiler
There is no identifiable information for the following areas: PROCESSING, oil extraction, equipment and nomenclature of products.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GUPTA, MAHABIR P., ARIAS, TOMAS D., "Safrole, The Main Component of the essential oil from Piper auritum of Panama". "Journal of Natural Products" Vol 43 no 2 Mar -Apr pp 3303431.
JOLY, L.G. "Feeding and Trapping Fish with Piper auritum". "Economic Botany 1981 Vol 35 No 4 pp 383-390
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