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I. GENERAL
COMMON NAME
Melissa offinalis
BOTANICAL NAME
Melissa officinalis L.
FAMILY
Labiatea
OTHER NAMES
Balm, Lemon Balm, Melissa Balm (USA), Balm Mint
CULTIVATION CONDITIONS
Melissa is a native of the countries bordering the northern shores of the Mediterranean, with further reports of it as far north as Finland and growing from the Alps to the Pyrenees. It was introduced into the USA where it was cultivated for the dried herb.
The herb is commercially produced in Hungary and the oil in Ireland.
Melissa grows best in alluvial soil, excess water is harmful, while yields diminish in light and dry soils (Guenther).
MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES
Hungary, Egypt, Italy, for herb Ireland for essential oil
YIELD AND DESCRIPTION
Genuine Melissa oil is a pale yellow sweet smelling oil with an odour of aromatic lemon. Yields are as low as 0.014% for distillation of the fresh herb to 0.112% for dried herb, increasing to 0.13% using cohobation. True oil is extremely expensive. The oil is held in high esteem for its use in aromatherapy, it is reported to have a sedative effect. There is little use for the oil in perfumery, where the odour is readily suggested by blends of the very cheap oils of Lemon, Lemongrass and fortified by Citronella oil. According to Arctander the plant is known in Europe as "Hearts Delight" since infusions of the herb were supposed to cure heart disease and melancholia and this led to the late 1930's perfume "Cosur-Joie", which had a melissa like top note.
MAIN USES
Infusions are made from the herb; the oil has several names (Oil of Balm, Oil of Lemon Balm, Oil of Melissa Balam, Oil of Balm Mint, Oil of Melissa Officinalis) and is used as a sedative in alternative medicine.
II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS
CULTIVATION
Planting is usually 40,000 plants/Ha. with propagation from seed or cuttings. The plants have a life of 10 years but are usually replaced every five years with crop rotation to rejuvenate the soil. Propagation in the northern hemisphere is from April to July.
HARVESTING PERIOD
In the first year the crop is in August, thereafter two crops are experienced. The first in June and the second in August.
HARVESTING METHODS
Usually by hand on a clear warm day as the leaves will turn black if harvested wet. For good appearance leaves should not be left in the sun.
III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT, PRESERVATION, STORAGE
PRE-TREATMENT
Weed control is recommended (Pank). It has been reported that, in Egypt, irradiating seeds has an effect on growth, essential oil content and composition. The quantity of herb was reduced but the oil content was increased, with the irradiation dosage varying the proportion of the constituents.
PRESERVATION AND STORAGE
The oil should be stored in filled sealed containers, out of light and kept cool. The oil is subject to oxidation.
IV. PROCESSING
PROCESSING METHOD
Stainless Steel steam distillation retorts equipped for cohobation should be used to increase the yield.
COMPOSITION OF OIL
Many reports exist regarding the composition. An analysis, from New Zealand, given for Melissa officinalis L. subsp altissima (Dawson) not only gives a yield 0.33% but constituents totally different from those of Melissa officinalis L. subsp officinalis.
A summary of the composition is given by Lawrence as follows:
Compounds Percentage range
Methyl Heptenone 2.2 - 8.6
Citronellal 1.0 - 8.4
Linalool 0.5 - 2.7
Neral 19.6 - 36.1
Geranial 25.3 - 47.5
Geranyl Acetate 1.2 - 6.2
1.9 - 9.7
Carophyllene oxide 0.5 - 9.0
EQUIPMENT
Forage Harvester
Stainless steel distillation equipment
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ARCTANDER, S. "Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin" (Private publication)
DAWSON, B.S.W; FRANICH, R.A AND MEDLER, R; "Essential Oil of Melissa officinalis 1. subsp altissima. (Sibthr. et Smith) Flavour and fragrance journal (1988) pp 167 - 170
"Effect of gamma radiation on growth, essential oil content and composition of Melissa officinalis L. grown in Egypt". Ann-Agric-Sci-Moshtohor. Moshtohor : Zagazig University (1984) v. 20 (2) pp 17 - 27
"Flavour composition of Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) cultivated in Finland".
Lebensm-Wiss-Technol-Food-Sci-Technol. London : Academic Press (1986) vol 19 pp 482 485
GUENTHER, E. "The Essential Oils" vol 3 "Oil of Balm" ISBN No 0-88275-163-8
LAWRENCE, B.M. "Progress in Essential Oils" Perfumer and Flavorist (1983) April/May vol 8 No. 2 p 61
PANK, F; EICHHOLZ, E; ENNET, D AND ZYGMUNT, B. "Chemical Weed Control in medicinal plant crops" Part 8 Balm (Melissa officinalis L.) Pharmazie 42: 3, 1987 pp 191 195, 9 ref
I. GENERAL
COMMON NAME
Milfoil
BOTANICAL NAME
Achillea millefolium L.
FAMILY
Compositae
OTHER NAMES
Yarrow, Achillea millefolium
CULTIVATION CONDITIONS
Yarrow is a weed and is found with many associated species in the temperate zones of the northern and southern hemispheres.
MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES
Yarrow is grown commercially in Albania (700 kg) and Hungary (100 kg) and in small quantities in Northern USA and Canada.
Quantities of the oil produced are small, less than 1000 kilos worldwide.
YIELD AND DESCRIPTION
The oil is found in the flowers.
Fresh flowers have been reported to contain 0.1 - 0.25% oil and semi dried flowers 0.24 -0.5% (Guenther). The oil is very dark blue in colour.
MAIN USES
The oil (which is called Oil of Achillea millefolium and Oil of Yarrow) has been produced as a diluent and replacement for Chamomile oil (Matricaria chamo milla L.) and as a source of chamazulene, an anti-inflammatory and antipyretic material (Merck).
II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS
CULTIVATION
The plant is an annual. Where it is cultivated the seed is planted in the early spring for a late summer flowering crop.
HARVESTING PERIOD
During full bloom
HARVESTING METHODS
Manual or mechanical. The whole plant is distilled.
III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT, PRESERVATION, STORAGE
PRE-TREATMENT
The plant should be wilted for 24 - 48 hours but kept dry to prevent fermentation.
PRESERVATION
None required
STORAGE
The oil should be stored in dark full containers in a cool con dition. Platelets may deposit on the sides of the container, which should be well agitated before use.
IV. PROCESSING
PROCESSING METHOD
The plant is distilled by steam distillation. Cohobation is recommended. The distillation will take 6 - 10 hours.
COMPOSITION OF OIL
The main constituent of the oil is chamazulene. This is formed during the steam distillation (Sandra).
According to the review by Lawrence it can vary from 5 - 33%.
Detailed analytical methods have been given by Hacey and co-workers (Hacey).
EQUIPMENT
No special farm equipment is necessary. Distillation equipment should permit cohobation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GUENTHER, E; "The Essential Oils" Vol 5. p 472 ISBN No 0-88275073-9
HACEY, J.M., et al. "Extraction and GC/MS Analysis of the Essential Oil of Achillea millefolium L complex". 'Journal of Essential Oil Research 1990', Vol 2 No 6 pp 317-326
LAWRENCE, B.M; "Progress in Essential Oils" 'Perfumer and Flavorist' August/September 1984 vol 9, No 4 p 37
Merck Index Tenth edition ISBN No 9 11910-27-1
SANDRA, P; BICCHI, C; EDITORS "Capillary Gas Analysis in Essential Oil Analysis". ISBN 3-7785-0850-l
I. GENERAL
COMMON NAME
Ninde
BOTANICAL NAME
Aeolanthus gamwellia Taylor (Erroneously reported as Aeolanthus graveolens) (Arctander).
FAMILY
Labiatae
OTHER NAMES
Local African names
CULTIVATION CONDITIONS
Grows wild as a weed in Central Africa. This flowering herbaceous shrub only received attention when a shortage of Indian Palmarosa occurred.
MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES
Malawi
No commercial production reported.
YIELD AND DESCRIPTION
The oil has a fresh rose - lemon rose odour and is pale yellow in colour. Reported yields have varied from 0.3 to 0.8% depending on the dryness and drying method.
MAIN USES
Ninde oil is used as a perfumery oil and as a source of cheap Geraniol. This oil performs extremely well as a perfume for soap. It was used in Malawi and surrounding areas as a replacement for Citronella and Palmarosa oils.
Interest was lost in this oil with the advent of cheap synthetic Geraniol. It has been used successfully as an adulterant for Rose Oil.
II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS
CULTIVATION
The plant can be grown from seed or stem cuttings. It is easily propagated and growth responds well to a good rainfall. On establishment it requires hand weeding and good plantation management as it is susceptible to nematode attack (UNCTAD report).
Ninde should be grown on a six year rotation, three years ninde and three years rest.
HARVESTING PERIOD
Best quality oil is obtained from the flowers during the period which corresponds to a dry season.
HARVESTING METHODS
Flowers have been harvested by hand but would adapt readily to mechanical harvesting.
III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT, PRESERVATION, STORAGE
PRE-TREATMENT
Nematode treatment is required during farm growth. Flowers should be processed immediately.
PRESERVATION
Oil may be preserved initially with an anti-oxidant such as butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT).
STORAGE
In the dark in full containers.
The quality of previously marketed oil suffered from being stored in second-hand petroleum drums.
IV. PROCESSING
PROCESSING METHOD
Production to date has been in field stills resulting in some burning, and rejection of the oil resulted. The spent herb can be used as a fuel. The quality of the oil would be improved by using modern distillation equipment.
COMPOSITION OF OIL
Terpenes as minor constituents
Geraniol (80%)
Geramyl acetate (5%)
Linalol (2%)
EQUIPMENT
Normal steam distillation stills required.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AMES, G.R; MATTHEWS, W.S.A; "The Development of Nindi Oil : Parts 1 - 111" Trop. Sci 1969 - 70 Vols X1 No 3, X11 No 1, and Xll No 2
ARCTANDER, S "Perfume and Flavour Materials of Natural Origin" Private publication "Essential Oils and Oleoresins" A Study of selected producers and major markets. ITC International Trade Centre UNCTAD/GATT Geneva 1986 SITC 551.3 ESS
I. GENERAL
COMMON NAME
Patchouli
BOTANICAL NAME
Pogostemon cablin benth. syn P. Patchouli pellet var. suavis Hook (Guenther)
FAMILY
Labiatae
OTHER NAMES
CULTIVATION CONDITIONS
Patchouli is a tropical plant that originated in the Philippines and Indonesia, but is now found growing wild in several other locations, after spreading from cultivated areas. It is cul tivated and harvested for its essential oil in Indonesia, Malaysia, China, Brazil, the Seychelles and the West Indies.
Several related plants have the typical Patchouli odour.
MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES
Indonesia (500 tonnes), China (60 tonnes), Brazil (1.5 tonnes), Malaysia ( 1 tonne).
YIELD AND DESCRIPTION
Yields on an average are reported at 3%, however, as the plant exhausts the soil markedly, this figure can range from 5% down to 1%. The odour of the oil has been described as balsamic, spicy, sweet, aromatic, woody, and minty; it is best summarised as 'Charac teristic Orient'.
The oil is usually dark brown in colour, but good quality distilled material, from modern distilleries or redistilled oil, can be pale yellow.
MAIN USES
Patchouli Oil is a perfumery raw material; it blends well in all types of perfumes contributing a rich spicy aroma and has been used in its own right as the perfume of the 'hippies' of the 1960's and by aromatherapists. As a perfume component it contributes odour but the constituents also give the oil good fixative properties, particularly in soap perfumes. Some 'Patchouli' synthetics exist, but they are expensive and do not give the odour profile of the oil.
II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS
CULTIVATION
The plants thrive best in a damp and moist climate with an equally distributed rainfall of 1500 - 3000 mm/year, a dry season no longer than 12 - 14 weeks and a temperature range of 22 - 32 degrees C. Well drained land is necessary for the plants which will not tolerate being waterlogged. They are susceptible to nematodes and well drained, newly-cleared land is therefore ideal. After three years crop rotation is desirable.
Patchouli is non-flowering and is, therefore, propagated from nursery stem cuttings. After four weeks, when sufficiently strong, the plants are planted out at approximately 20,000 - 25,000/Ha.
Fertiliser in the cheapest form, i.e. manure, is used especially on poorer soils. Weeding is very important to protect the young plants.
HARVESTING PERIOD
The first harvest is usually taken when the plants are six months old, having attained a height of 0.5 - 1 metre. Best quality oil is obtained by harvesting in the wet season. Subsequent harvests, again in wet seasons, are taken every 4 - 5 months, until the plants are about three years old, after which the quantity of oil decreases.
Crop rotation, if feasible, proceeds patchouli replanting.
HARVESTING METHODS
This is very labour intensive and is carried out in the early morning or early evening by hand.
While oil is present in all parts of the plant, the best oil is found only in the leaf, and so it is only the top leaves that are cut and handled. The leaf is cured for up to three days by laying it on concrete in the sun or, preferably, on racks in the shade. This latter method reduces the loss of oil by evaporation, but with both methods the leaf is turned frequently to promote even drying.
III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT, PRESERVATION, STORAGE
PRE-TREATMENT
When leaves are exported (see processing) they have to be well dried before baling to prevent mould formation in transport.
PRESERVATION
None required for the oil.
STORAGE
Second hand reconditioned drums are usually used. These should be thoroughly inspected before use, but new drums are preferable if available. When high quality oil is produced, it should be stored in epoxy-lined containers.
IV. PROCESSING
PROCESSING METHOD
The leaves are steam distilled using direct steam. Because of the nature of the oil the distillation technique requires considerable experimentation first using low pressure steam followed by high pressure. Distilling times of 6 - 24 hours have been reported and again only trials will determine a satisfactory time. In Europe and America high quality light coloured oil is produced from the combination of using matured leaves (as a result of maturing while shipping) and modern stainless steel stills.
Water/steam distillation methods are used in some areas but this results in poor control and inferior oil. The freshly dis tilled oil requires airing and long standing to remove entrained water.
COMPOSITION OF OIL
A comprehensive review of the analysis of Patchouli Oil is given by Lawrence. True Patchouli Oil will consist of: 1% Terpenes 50% Sesquiterpenes 30 - 40% of Patchouli alcohols and related alcohols.
Patchouli Oil was traditionally adulterated with Gurjun Balsam Oil, Copaiba Oil and Cedarwood fractions. These are readily detected by gas chromatography (Sandra). There are many specifications such as EOA, ISO, AFNOR and BSI Standards for Patchouli Oil: most perfume blending companies have their own requirements for colour, odour and solubility for extract formulae.
EQUIPMENT
Steam boiler
Distillation vessels, preferably stainless steel.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GUENTHER, E. "The Essential Oils" Vol 3 'Oil of Patchouli p 552 ISBN No. 0-88275-1638
LAWRENCE, B.M. "Progress in Essential Oils" 'Perfumer and Flavorist' 1981 vol 6 No 4 p 73
SANDRA, P; BICCHI, C; EDITORS "Capillary Gas Chromatography in Essential Oil Analysis". ISBN 3-7785-0860-1
I. GENERAL
COMMOM NAME
Tarragon
BOTANICAL NAME
Artemisia dracunculus L.
FAMILY
Compositae
OTHER NAMES
Estragon (While the Europeans use the name 'Estragon', the English speaking races interchange both names.)
Sweet Artemisia (Guenther).
CULTIVATION CONDITIONS
The herb is a perennial originating in Eurasia. It is cultivated extensively in France, Italy, Iran, Central Europe, USA and South America. The primary product is the culinary herb with the oil as a by-product. The best quality oil is considered to be of French origin.
MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES
Italy (5 tonnes), France (1.5 tonnes), Hungary (1.5 tonnes), Iran (700 kg), Argentina (500 kg) Yugoslavia (500 kg) and Israel (200 kg).
YIELD AND DESCRIPTION
The oil is pale yellow with a sweet spicy anisic odour and taste. The dried herb gives a yield of 0.25 - 0.8%, while the fresh herb yields 0.1 - 0.45%. Of all the Artemisia this is the only one described as sweet.
MAIN USES
Both the herb and the oil (which is called Oil of Estragon or Oil of Tarragon) are used as condiment flavours e.g. tarragon vinegar and in French culinary sauces and salad dressings. The oil has some use in exotic-type heavy perfumes. Between 1000 - 2000 kilos of the oil is sold by the French per year.
II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS
CULTIVATION
Tarragon can only be propagated by root division. In Europe the division takes place in February/March, with the first harvest taken in July. A minor harvest is collected in September. The herb grows to a height of 50 - 70 cms and the plants have a good oil-yielding life of three years. They are reported to do best in a sandy soil of pH 6.2 (Arctander).
HARVESTING PERIOD
This is just before inflorescence.
HARVESTING METHODS
For both harvests the plants are cut close to the ground, therefore a forage harvester is suitable.
III. POST HARVEST TREATMENT, PRESERVATION, STORAGE
PRE-TREATMENT
Where the herb is grown solely for oil production, a wilting time of twenty four hours is usual. The oil is quite often distilled from the dust and fragment residues from the herb cleaning and packing sheds.
PRESERVATION
Antioxidant can be added, although it is not usual to do so.
STORAGE
The oil is very prone to oxidise and, therefore, must be stored under good conditions, i.e. in the dark, with no air contact and in full sealed containers.
IV. PROCESSING
PROCESSING METHOD
It is preferable to steam distil the herb in stainless steel equipment or, at least, with a stainless steel heat exchanger.
Inferior quality oil is obtained from water/steam field dis tillation units. In this type of distillation there is a danger of burning the oil.
In direct steam distillation the distillation time is only 1 - 1.5 hours.
COMPOSITION OF OIL
The French type is reported to contain approximately 65% Methyl chavicol (Estragole). The oil has been adulterated with synthetic estragole, but this is readily identified on a smelling blotter as the synthetic material does not have the intensity of the genuine oil; a good example of the function of natural fixatives.
Other origins, possibly from poor selection of the root stock from the many subspecies available, contain large proportions of Sabinene and Eleminene (Sandra). A detailed study of the constituents has been reported using a combin ation of GC/MS analysis.
EQUIPMENT
Modern stainless equipment is recommended.
Forage harvester
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ARCTANDER, S. "Perfume and Flavour Materials of Natural Origin". Private publication
GUENTHER, E. "The Essential Oils" Vol 5 p 459 ISBN 0-88275073-9
SANDRA, P; & BICCHI, C; EDITORS "Capillary Gas Chromatography in Essential Oil Analysis - Chromatographic Methods".
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