APPROACHES FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN MOUNTAIN LANDS UNDER HIGH POPULATION PRESSURE

M. D. Joshi, Director-General
DSCWM, Kathmandu, Nepal

INTRODUCTION

Watershed Degradation Problems in Mountain Lands:
Causes and Consequences

It is estimated that half of the world's population lives in or adjacent to mountain watershed environments and is affected by the way that they are farmed. Increasing human and livestock populations in developing countries and the ever mounting pressure on the fast receeding upland forest resources have led to unprecedented environmental degradation.

This degradation results in the loss of human lives, [aggravates] catastrophic flooding, alters streamflow, increases sedimentation of dams, and disrupts downstream agricultural activities.

Studies have indicated for instance that the denudation of mountain lands has caused flood damages of the Indus River system in Pakistan to be far greater in the last 25 years than during the previous 60 years, leading to serious silting up of dams and canals in that country's irrigation systems. The cost of repairing flood damage below the Himalayan catchments in India has averaged US $200 million per year.

One visible consequence of the deforestation of the Himalayan region, for example, has been the appearance of a new island about 40,000 sq. km in size in the Bay of Bengal. The island is made up almost entirely of top soil washed down from the Himalayas.

The list of examples is endless and they all indicate that as population increases, more people are forced to use fragile marginal mountainous lands which are particularly susceptible to abuse and degradation. It is generally the poor who are most affected. The long term answer lies in the reduction of the number of persons who depend on these marginal mountain watershed lands for a living; this requires provision of alternative activities, such as conversion of marginal farming practices to the growing of economic tree crops or such off-farm employment as cottage industries and general handicraft.

OBJECTIVES OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN MOUNTAIN LANDS

The management of mountain lands deals with people. Mechanical structures, reforestation, and other conservation practices will not achieve many benefits unless the inhabitants of these upland catchment areas are persuaded and given incentives to change from their present ecologically destructive practices such as shifting cultivation to more suitable land use.

In Nepal there has been a programme for resettlement of some hill dwellers to the flat fertile lands in the Terai. They are likely to adopt more intensive and sustainable farming systems, thus giving small farmers the opportunity to improve their incomes and at the same time arresting high rates of soil erosion.

A major watershed problem is the frequently excessive numbers of unproductive livestock which are kept on the land. A strategy to reduce the livestock numbers by improving the draught power and milk production of fewer but superior animals is needed. This can be achieved in several ways such as improving the quality of fodder, by encouraging stall feeding, by introducing superior feed and by providing effective marketing systems.

It has been reasonably well established that on steep mountain areas with high rainfall, undisturbed natural forests provide the optimum catchment cover needed to protect water and soil resources. However, several countries have indicated that perennial tree crops such as tea and citrus can be almost as effective as natural forest, provided that their cultivation is combined with appropriate soil conservation measures.

Where the main objectives of watershed management are the restoration of vegetation to protect the soil and regulate streamflow, a much cheaper solution would be to allow the area to regenerate naturally or to augment natural regeneration by seeding grasses, legumes or low shrubs.

In semi-arid areas, and where water yield is an important consideration, the use of grasses and low shrubs may be preferred since evapotranspiration from tall trees is much higher than from grassland or low-canopy shrubs. 'The planting of fast growing tree species could then be confined to gullies where there is serious risk of deepening erosion.

A major objective of watershed management in mountain lands is to protect the natural resources such as soil, water and vegetation from degradation. The most common strategy is to use reforestation to achieve this by:

i) the re-establishment of vegetation cover on denuded areas

ii) the provision of fuelwood, fodder, and timber by establishing desirable species in adequate quantities around homesteads, or at convenient distances from the villages where they will be utilized, and

iii) the rehabilitation of existing natural forests and the development of appropriate exploitation guidelines.

These activities must be supported by the establishment of nurseries to supply the seedlings and fodder grasses which are needed for planting.

Thus the overall objectives for watershed management in mountain lands may be enunciated as:

i) Ensure the sustainable use of all the renewable natural resources such as forest, wildlife, and agricultural land.

ii) Achieve sound ecological balances as well as life support systems on these mountain lands.

iii) Maintain and improve water quality.

iv) Maintain and increase water yield.

v) Regulate the timing of streamflows.

vi) Control excessive runoff thereby controlling [reducing] floods.

vii) Control soil erosion and other harmful land degradation processes.

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES

Some Alternatives

The approach for watershed management in mountain lands may take many forms. The first major consideration is that watershed management involves several different departments of government with varying disciplines and technical expertise. Consequently, there are basically two approaches:

i) The "One Umbrella Approach" is where a single authority is designated or specially constituted for the overall management of the watershed. In that case this overall authority either employs its own staff covering all the disciplines required or receives such staff from the respective departments. In either case the task of managing the watershed in all its aspects is entrusted to one central authority.

ii) The "Line Agencies Approach" is one where different aspects of the watershed management programme are undertaken by the respective departments which have responsibility, such as the Roads Department coming in for any road construction activities. Each department or line agency remains essentially independent of the other. The main job of the person in charge of the development programme becomes one of coordinating the efforts of respective line agencies.

The system eventually chosen depends on the rules and particular organization of the individual countries.

Another major consideration for mountain lands has to do with the modalities for execution of the watershed management work:

i) The work may be undertaken largely by the local population with varying types and levels of incentives, including credit.

ii) The work may be undertaken directly by the state.

iii) A combination of both.

In countries with a large percentage of private land ownership, the execution of work must be largely through the local population who own the land.

Direct implementation by the government is necessary for priority watersheds where the problems are particularly severe and where there is a high percentage of public lands. This may be the case in some municipal watersheds and in the catchment areas for large dams and reservoirs.

In any case it appears logical that a combination of i) and ii) will always be needed. What needs to be determined is the proportion of the mix.

CASE STUDIES

Bhutan

Natural Resources and Population

Bhutan covers an area of 46,000 sq. km with a population of 1.2 million, or an average population density of 26 persons per sq. km. Land use is summarized in Table 1.

Current Issues of Watershed Management

i) Shifting cultivation has been one of the major causes of forest depletion in southern and eastern regions of the Kingdom. Repeated burning as practiced in shifting cultivation, has deteriorated the soil and reduced the moisture retaining capacity of the soil. The Royal Government of Bhutan is very concerned about such destructive practices of cultivation and pronounced a Forest Policy in 1974 by which such practices are banned. in an effort to reduce and ultimately stop shifting cultivation, the government has made a systematic survey of shifting cultivation areas to determine what percentage can be converted into permanent fields by providing incentives for making terraces. In addition, there is a program of resettlement of shifting cultivators to a suitable area properly developed by the Government.

Table 1. Land use characteristics of Bhutan.

ii) Forest fire is one of the biggest dangers to forests. Every year extensive and valuable forest property is destroyed by fire. All fires are man made, and are rarely accidental. These practices need to be stopped first by educating the public and supported by the appropriate deterrent as a last resort. The strength of the forest department is too small to cope with this problem.

iii) Unregulated grazing has greatly damaged forests due to the migratory grazing habits and improper practices in certain parts of the country.

iv) High fuelwood consumption in Bhutan has been estimated at 2.6 m 3 /year per person and has caused tremendous pressure on the forests. It is suggested that efficient wood burning stoves, smokeless Chulas, biogas stoves, etc. may be developed and introduced in rural areas for efficient heating and cooking purposes. This would ease the demand for fuelwood and directly help to reduce the pressure on forests and help ensure ecological stability.

v) Institutional constraints faced by the Forest Department include shortage of trained forestry personnel both in technical and professional fields, lack of experience, and lack of conciousness among the rural population towards forest conservation. The high illiteracy rate prevailing in the country explains this lack of awareness.

Ongoing Watershed Development Activities

i) Policy framework: Technical suggestions made by the Forest Department regarding landuse patterns to be practiced in the mountainous topography of Bhutan are as follows:

- All level and gently sloping areas below 20° (35%) slope should be earmarked for cultivation and settlement.
- Suitable areas close to settlements and with a gentle slope between 20° to 45° (36 to 100%) may be utilized for orchards.
- Areas not fit for cultivation or orchards due to reasons of soil characteristics or otherwise, and areas with a slope of more than 45° should be maintained under permanent forest cover.
- The areas above 4,000 m should be maintained as alpine pasture and only rotational grazing should be allowed under the Pasture Development Programmes.
- Fuel, fodder and fruit trees of commercial value should be planted on the boundaries of cultivated fields and in buffer belts between forests and villages.

ii) Social Forestry Programme: This programme is aimed at creating an awareness among rural households of the need for scientific forest management and also to increase the supply of fuelwood, fodder, and timber for domestic use. Each rural household is encouraged to plant 10 trees on their own registered lands, with planting material being supplied free of cost by the Government. During the Fifth Plan, over 400,000 plants will be distributed. In order to support the above programmes, forest nurseries will also be improved and expanded.

Royalty shall not be levied on the trees planted by individuals on their registered land under this Social Forestry Scheme.

iii) Afforestation Programme: Massive plantation programmes are being undertaken in denuded forest areas in southern Bhutan with the help of a World Bank loan. The objectives are to rehabilitate and upgrade such denuded areas and sustain a steady supply of raw materials for wood based industries and supply of fuelwood to the local people. The total area to be planted under this afforestation scheme is 4000 ha.

iv) Wildlife Management: out of 31,339.40 sq. km of forested area, 9,020 sq. km has been set aside as sancturies, national parks and wildlife reserves. The existing and proposed wildlife reserve, parks and similar areas occupy 20% of the total land area of the country.

v) Fodder and Feed Development: The present estimated livestock population is 300,000 cattle, 26,100 yak, 40,100 sheep, and 53,800 pigs. The need for developing feed resources for these animals is of a much higher priority now than in earlier years because of the overall policy to increase animal productivity by cross-breeding wherever possible, by better feeding, and by management that improves the quality rather than the number of animals. Cross-breeding can be expected to raise productivity of livestock only if they are provided with adequate nutrition, health care, and proper management. Hence, the success of all livestock programmes depends largely on the extent of success achieved by the pasture management and the Fodder and Feeds Development Programme.

Future Actions Recommended

i) Improvement in management techniques: Generally speaking, watershed management is not a serious problem yet, but it is the right time to put some effort into watershed management programmes (preventive measures).

ii) Strengthening of the organization: The number of trained professional personnel should be increased to strengthen the organization undertaking watershed management activities.

iii) Conservation education and extension programmes: Appropriate Conservation Education and Extension Programmes should be launched to educate people in the general conservation aspects of efficient utilization of fuelwood.

iv) Research: Operational research and demonstration projects on watershed management could be used to develop technological packages suitable for the local population.

Natural Resources and Population

India, with a total area of 3.28 million sq. km and a population of 683.81 million, has an average population density of 208 persons per km . Land use is summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Land use characteristics of India.

Current Issues of Watershed Management

i) High population density: Watershed degradation is primarily caused by the misuse and mismanagement of la d by- human beings and their animals. Population pressures in the Himalayas is high (547 persons per km² of the agricultural land in the Uttar Pradesh Himalayas with an average per capita cultivated land holding of only 0.18 ha). The situation is aggravated by nonavailability of land suitable for cultivation. Agriculture is practiced on marginal, steep sloped land that is unsuitable for cultivation.

ii) Shifting cultivation: Shifting cultivation is practiced in the northeastern hill states where the tribal population lives. Shifting cultivation is estimated to be occurring on an area varying between 4,550 to 5,420 km² and by a population of 492,000 to 529,000 families. The total area affected by shifting cultivation is 26,957 km² . The rotation cycle is about six years and may be as short as 2 to 3 years in some localities. The average area cultivated per annum per family is 0.92 ha.

iii) Rural energy problem: Timber for construction of houses and fuelwood for cooking and heating puts heavy pressure on forest resources. Pressures are not only applied from people living in the hills but also come from the people living in the plains who have the same needs. The problem is compounded by the slow rate of growth of even the "fast" growing species because of the cold climate in some of these mountain watersheds.

iv) Increasing demand on forest resources: The pressure for exploitation of forests, both legal and illegal, is increasing with the expanding population. The per capita forest area was 12 ha in 1971. Even if no further deforestation takes place, the projected increase in population will leave only 0.075 ha of forest area per capita by the year 2000.

v) Unregulated grazing: Grazing lands, devoid of vegetative cover by overgrazing during the preceding summer gives rise to a network of rills and gullies. Migratory sheep and goats cause large scale damage to vegetation both in upper and lower altitudinal zones. Pressure for fodder on local broad-leaved trees through heavy and continuous lopping threatens the survival of some species.

vi) inadequate agricultural practices: Marginal lands, in the hills, are cultivated in the absence of alternate sources of livelihood. Ploughing is done on steep sloping lands and also across the contour. While laying irrigation channels, the gradient and the disposal of drainage is not carefully designed thereby causing landslips.

vii) Development activities: Construction of roads in hill areas necessitates large scale cutting of steep mountainsides, sometimes giving rise to landslips. It is estimated that an average of 10 small to medium landslides/slips occur in every 1 km length of Himalayan road. Open mining has also been defacing beautiful forested hill slopes.

viii) Institutional: The responsibility for land, water, forest energy and mining falls under different ministries. Watershed management embodies all these activities. Coordination of these activities is sometimes difficult. There are different types of institutions to tackle similar soil conservation programmes. Some are carried by the Forest Department while others are launched by River Valley Projects, autonomous bodies.

Ongoing Watershed Development Activities ,

i) Policy framework: India has a well defined national forest policy and forest act.

- Fragile and sensitive areas have been designated as Biosphere Reserves, Wildlife Reserves, and water supply catchment areas in which the felling of trees is banned.

- No forest areas can be diverted to nonforestry uses except with the special permission of the Government. The diversion of forest lands to unsuitable uses is thus being avoided; these measures have begun to show positive effects.

ii) Social forestry programme: Under the Social Forestry Programme fodder and fuelwood trees are being raised on government lands. Farm forestry activities involving the raising of trees on Panchayat and school lands is being undertaken. By 1979 a total of 0.1 million hectares were planted and it is expected that an additional 0.5 million hectares will be planted by 1985.

iii) Afforestation programme: In order to provide protective cover for the mountain slopes, replenish declining timber resources, and provide needed fuelwood/fodder trees. Special programmes to raise fast growing tree species have been undertaken under the current five year development plan, including a centrally sponsored scheme for raising rural fuelwood plantations.

iv) Integrated watershed management development programme: Watershed management development programmes are first developed for watersheds which fall high in priority categories which involve 33 to 45% of the catchment area in the northwestern Himalayas and 59 to 77% in the northeastern Himalayas. Integrated watershed management plans are first prepared for each selected watershed and involve the Departments of Revenue, Agriculture, Forests, Animal Husbandry and irrigation. The implementation programmes are generally phased over a period of five years although this time frame is sometimes exceeded. The plans provide for treatment of agricultural lands, development of pastures, rehabilitation of forest land with the objectives of achieving conservation while simultaneously enhancing the production capacities of the local population. The treatment of landslides, roadside stabilization and engineering works that lead to the prevention of erosion along river banks and detention of the sediment bedload are also included.

Terraces with proper shapes and adequate drainage systems form the main component of treatment for agricultural lands. In the foothills contour bounding and land leveling are the main practices. In grazing lands simple enclosures are encouraged where potential for good grass cover exists; fuel species are raised where the soil conditions are better. In the case of degraded forests, enrichment plantings are undertaken to increase timber resources needed by the local population. Landslide treatment measures are mostly in the nature of rehabilitation of the catchment area, construction of diversion drains and treatment of exposed areas through structural and vegetative measures.

v) Research: India has a well developed infrastructure for research and training like the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training institute, Forest Research Institute and ICAR Agricultural Research Complex. These facilities provide continued input of technology and professional manpower.

In short, India has several extensive ongoing programmes in forestry, soil and water conservation, and watershed management and is continuing to put more and more resources into these programmes. In the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) over US$ 315 million have been allocated for forestry and social forestry for the conservation of mountain lands in the Himalayan states alone. One programme is named "Soil Watch" which stands for Soil, Water and Tree Conservation in Himalayas. In addition, India has extensive programmes of soil and water 'conservation in the river valley catchments. Up to 2.4 million hectares of land were treated with soil and water conservation measures by 1980, at an estimated cost of over US$ 135 million. In the Sixth Five Year Plan outlays have increased and new central programme proposals include: control of shifting cultivation, setting up land resource commissions, watershed management in river valley projects and flood prone rivers, water harvesting and recycling, and strengthening of soil surveys, all at an estimated cost of over US$ 95 million. Ongoing internationally supported programmes include the watershed management project supported by the Federal Republic of Germany in Himalchal Pradesh, and the proposed afforestation, watershed management and training programmes in the Himalayas to be supported by Switzerland, EEC, FAO/UNDP and the World Bank.

Future Actions Recommended

i) Improvement in existing technology: Technology needs to be improved with more attention paid to plantation protection and to maintenance of works. Watershed management programmes should embody other integrated programmes with erosion control programmes.

ii) Strengthening of organizations: Development departments need to be strengthened and made more effective and efficient to be able to deliver the goods. There is need for better coordination between the agriculture, forest, irrigation and flood control departments as far as watershed management is concerned.

iii) Orientation to policy makers: Favorable policy environment could be formulated by regularly orienting and educating policy and decision makers to the problems of watershed management.

iv) Conservation education extension: Greater effort is needed to make people aware of the problems and to get them committed to undertake and protect (support) watershed management programmes.

Nepal

Natural Resources and Population

Nepal has a total land area of 141,000 km² and a population of 15 million, resulting in an average population density of 106 persons/km² . Land use is summarized in Table 3.

Current Issues of Watershed Management

i) High population density: The total population of hill and mountain areas including the Inner Terai region was 7.5 million in 1971 and 9.2 million in 1981, an annual 2.3% increase. The population density in the hills and mountains is 67 persons/km² and the Inner Terai is 83 persons/km² compared to 713 persons/km² in the Kathmandu Valley. The problem of population density is aggravated by the fact that 15% of the land area is under perpetual snow and 18% is barren.

Population increases are pronounced in the Inner Terai districts whereas some hill districts have moderate increases and the mountain region has only a marginal increase. The pattern indicates a movement of population from higher to lower elevations and into urban areas and areas with better transportation facilities.

Table 3. Land use characteristics of Nepal.

ii) Increasing demand on forest resources: More than 87% of the energy in Nepal is generated from forest products. Forest area has decreased from 6.4 million hectares to 4 million hectares between 1964 and 1979. In the Trisuli Watershed, forest cover was reduced 25% during the period 1956-67. Taking the present rate of consumption and accounting for population growth it is estimated that forests in the hills will cease to exist by the year 2000.

iii) Inadequate forest management: Forest management plans have not been prepared for the hill forests and proper control and supervision of forests have not been achieved. A couple of plans were prepared for the Terai districts, but they could not be implemented successfully.

iv) Cultivation without adequate conservation practices: The average hectare of available land in the hills supports nine persons as compared to three persons in the Terai. Cultivation is extending onto marginal and steeper slopes, even exceeding 100%. Proper conservation is not practiced in existing cultivated areas. Water for irrigation is diverted from springs and torrents by digging steep channels with little attention to gradient faults, rock dips and channel capacity, thereby causing landslips/slides.

v) Unregulated grazing: The livestock population is equal to the human population in Nepal. The existing forest and crop residue cannot satisfy existing livestock needs. The existing communal pasture lands are scattered and heavily overgrazed. This situation has made livestock less productive and has brought about an unpredicted soil erosion problem (34.7 tons/ha/yr in the hill areas). Apart from that, forests and shrub land are increasingly being deteriorated due to free grazing cattle and excessive lopping of fodder-trees.

vi) Developmental activities: Because of the topography, geology and climate, hill roads are major causes of landslides and erosion. Improper stone quarries add to these problems. About 5% of landslides and erosion problems of the country are associated with roads and trails.

vii) Institutional framework: Since conservation of natural resources and the environment concerns many departments and agencies, it is essential to provide coordination among relevant departments. At the same time, Nepal has not been able to spread its watershed management programmes throughout the hilly region.

Ongoing Watershed Management Activities

i) Policy framework: A major policy of the Government is to protect and maintain water resources and the ecological balance of the country by carrying out watershed management. Another major policy is for land to be used scientifically. The Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Act of 1982 has been passed and the necessary bylaws are being prepared. His Majesty's Government has set up a National Council for Conservation of Natural Resources, and has just completed a prospectus for the formulation of a National Conservation Strategy.

ii) Watershed management and soil conservation: The deterioration of watersheds in the hills of Nepal is not caused by any single factor but by a number of interrelated and instituted problems like population growth, deforestation, agricultural techniques and grazing habits. It is, therefore, impossible to re-establish the ecological balance and enhance economic growth through individual and separate measures. Rather, the approach must be multidisciplinary and integrated. Such an approach has been taken in the Watershed Management Programme in Nepal. Watershed management, forestry, agriculture, livestock, pasture management and drinking water programmes are the main components. The component activities are carried out by respective agencies within the watershed area, but the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management functions as the lead agency for the whole programme. Seven watershed areas are covered under this programme. Soil Conservation Programmes like slope stabilization, gully and torrent control, protection of the infrastructure like roads, canals, trails, etc., plantations on eroded areas, terrace improvement and horticulture plantations are components in Integrated Rural Development Projects led by the Ministry of Panchayat and Local Development. Five IRD Soil Conservation Programmes fall under this category.

iii) Community forestry and afforestation: Nepal is divided into over 4000 panchayats or groupings. The community forestry approach assists panchayats in either establishing and/or maintaining forests adjacent to them for the benefit of its members. These forests also provide much needed protection to these mountain lands. Under the programme the panchayats are given free seedlings, technical advice, management plans and benefit from the proceeds of these forests.

The Sixth Plan (1980-85) through "Community Forestry Programme" aims to undertake works like 408 nurseries, establishment of tree plantations in 11,750 ha of panchayat forest, 39,100 ha of panchayat protected forest, and distribution of improved stoves.

The Department of Forest afforested 9,595 ha and had 11,061 ha of forest improvement works during 1975-80; afforestation totaled 38,272 ha during 1980-85.

iv) National park and wildlife: National parks and wildlife reserves totaling 8168 km² are maintained in the hills and mountainous watershed of Nepal.

v) Fodder and feed development: Fodder production is being developed on barren private land by encouraging stall feeding of cattle which also reduces grazing pressures on communal pastures and forest lands. In addition, plantations of fodder trees and grasses on private barren land are propagated and subsidized so that in the long run farmers will be self-sufficient in fodder supply. Methods of fodder conservation (hay, silage, straw treatment) are being introduced and encouraged.

Future Actions Recommended

i) improvement in management techniques: It is important to secure rational planning for the development of mountain watershed lands. While focusing on sound technological packages, planning must also pay attention to the organizational framework needed to integrate all the needed watershed management activities in an area.

ii) Strengthening the organization: Nepal must make a massive effort in strengthening departments in the shortest possible time and apply their activities throughout the hilly regions. Priority should also be given to building up the cadre of trained personnel.

iii) Conservation education and extension: Programmes must be extended to make people aware of the need for watershed management and ensure their participation in management programmes.

iv) Research: Research and training facilities for watershed management should be initiated as a matter of priority. Operational research projects could also be used to develop technological packages of practices appropriate to the rural population in mountain watersheds.

CONCLUSIONS

Increasing production by increasing the volume and sale of inputs, such as bringing more land in production, has long been a goal of man but has not always been compatible with nature. For example, if a farmer increases his herd drastically, grasslands become overgrazed, cattle progressively become unproductive, and eventually the land will become desertlike. Accelerated and serious land degradation results.

More extensive reforestation programmes are needed throughout the mountains of Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Trees are required to protect vulnerable slopes and soils, and to provide fuelwood, thus reducing the use of manure for cooking. Putting manure back onto the fields will in turn help boost productivity, thus reducing the spreading cultivation on unsuitable slopes. Virtually every government in mountain regions has demarcated forest reserves in especially strategic locations such as those above important rivers. But it is only when adequate food and fuel are available from other sources that these "productive forests" can be genuinely protected.

Greater opportunities to earn a living outside of agriculture can also reduce pressures on the land. Mining and related industries are already a source of jobs and money in some areas. However, the environmental consequences of these operations must be carefully monitored and controlled, lest their impacts prove self-defeating. It has been commonly stated in many quarters that the poor countries cannot afford the luxury of pollution controls on their industries, but the gap between environmental protection needs in the rich and poor countries may be narrower than many think. In Peru, a government agency points out that air pollution is killing vegetation on thousands of mountainous hectares surrounding mines and refineries, resulting in "truly spectacular" soil erosion.

Tourism, too, at once poses a great potential and a threat for the mountains. With their fascinating scenery and cultures, countries like Nepal, Peru and Ethiopia clearly can expand their tourist trade several fold. Yet planning is essential to prevent further degradation of their natural resources by visiting sightseers. The soaring number of trekkers in the high Himalayas of Nepal over the last decade has created a booming firewood business for some mountain people, but it has grown at the expense of the forests and particularly fragile ecosystems of the upper slopes.

The central threat to the future of the mountains is the burden of the burgeoning human numbers they must bear. Planned migration to less crowded lowlands, where possible, will be important, but it is merely a temporary solution. The need to reduce the rate of population growth in the mountains cannot be over-emphasized because of the limited carrying capacity of these lands.

Appropriate incentive schemes are prerequisite for programmes devoted to land rehabilitation, watershed management and the rational utilization of forest lands where renewable natural resources of mountain lands are threatened. Incentives can be justified by the State because the costs of degradation of mountain lands are born by society. Incentives are intended to compensate the farmer for works which benefit the -community, and to correct the social damage engendered by the gradual impoverishment of mountain lands and rural communities. Incentive schemes must attain the following basic objectives:

- Help the peasant develop a satisfactory level of income by introducing improved or diversified methods for the use and management of natural resources.

- Promote self-development by organizing the community and stimulating its own capacity to find and apply solutions which contribute to its economic and social well-being on a sustained basis.

- Compensate peasants for the additional labour, the loss of profits, and reduced earning power from land due to the introduction of watershed conservation practices and new systems of use and management which ultimately benefits the community.

- Concentrate on farm utilization by intensive crop cultivation and create new sources of employment not connected with the soil to lighten the pressure on protected forest lands and other fragile mountain areas.

- Integrate the peasant in the sustained yield management of renewable natural resources as the main beneficiary of goods and services derived from rational exploitation.

None of the parties involved must see incentives as a gift, they must be a stimulus to the farmer's aspirations and sense of responsibility. Continuous aid which does not produce self-development and incentives in which peasants have only a passive role, lead to paternalism and to their growing dependence upon the state.

It is, therefore, essential to prepare peasants to assume the responsibilities for the management and conservation of their natural heritage. Incentives require both an undertaking by the State and the willingness on the part of the beneficiary to modify the use and management of mountain lands.

The plight of environmental degradation, particularly that connected with mountain lands, is widespread and has been lamented in numerous reports. The exploitation of natural resources by an ever expanding population is understandable because of the needs and struggles of that expanding population to satisfy its basic requirements. The rural population in many instances is well aware of the destruction of the natural resources and the erosion of the life support systems; but as the population increases it is helpless to do anything about the dilemma of which it is a part.

In spite of all this, mountain communities, in general, have a great desire to act and work to improve their living conditions and to ensure a better future for their children. These mountain people invariably have a great asset; that of being hard working. What is most needed, therefore, is the ability of authorities to channel that energy in the right direction to achieve desirable results, i.e., people's participation in watershed management activities. In order to obtain that participation watershed management must be closely tied to other activities such as agricultural development and the improvement or provision of critically needed infrastructure such as transportation improvement, safe drinking water, and stock ponds.

Any watershed management programme which is not based on people's participation and which is not consistent with people's aims and aspirations will certainly fail. Watershed programmes will only be sustainable when local people are involved and are motivated to perceive the activities as their own.