0985-B4
Jim Carle, Alberto Del Lungo and Martti Varmola 1
Based upon current outlook studies, forest plantations constitute only 5% of global forest cover but already supply up to 35% of global round-wood. FAO established a new forest plantation database to complement and supplement the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 and previous assessments. The new data includes by country by species details purpose, growth rate, rotation length and rates of planting additional to the existing database for forest plantations to allow more sound forest plantation outlook analysis.
Examples of planting trends and strategies in different countries and regions are given. In some countries no new planting occurs while especially in Asia high new planting rates increase plantation area considerably. Significant new resources are recognized including Populus and Hevea. Eucalyptus spp. are generally the most productive but they too have modest growing rates on certain sites. More than 490 tree species, both exotic and native, are reported in tropical and sub-tropical plantations.
The question of plantation definition applied to temperate and boreal countries and to tropical and subtropical countries is discussed. Limited data is available for some developed countries, partly because of forest plantation definitions and concepts.
In both developed and developing countries there remain gaps in reliable and accurate plantation areas, purpose and ownership, survival rates, new planting/replanting rates, tree species, age class distributions, growth rates, rotation lengths and yields of raw material supply. The database for outlook studies to gauge the potential of forest plantations in global round-wood, fibre, fuel-wood and non-wood forest products supply remain weak.
New procedures are presented to improve the collection, storage and access to plantation data. Efficient use of the internet is seen as a key tool. It is suggested that forest plantations should have a more central role both in country wise forest resources assessments and consolidation at the regional and global level in the future. A reviewed outlook study analysis is planned based upon the new forest plantation data.
Plantations make up a sustainable, energy efficient and environmentally and socially friendly source of world round-wood, fibre, fuel-wood and non-wood forest products and provide social and environmental benefits. Reported plantations accounted for less than 5 percent of global forest cover, of which, those planted for industrial purposes made up 3 percent and those for non-industrial purposes (fuel-wood, protection and conservation) made up 2 percent of global forest cover (FAO, 2001a; Carle et al., 2002). According to FAO (2000), based on the data from 1995 when plantation area was estimated to be 3.5 percent (or 103 million ha) of global forest area, 22 percent of industrial round-wood was estimated from plantations at the year 2000 with extrapolations to the year 2050 at extremes varying from 19.7 to 64.0 percent.
ABARE - Jaakko Pöyry (1999) estimated round-wood supply from plantations to be 35 percent in 2000, 44 percent in 2020 and 46 percent in 2040. These scenarios were made on the assumption that industrial plantation area was 116 million ha and total effective area 94 million ha in 1995. Thomberlin and Buongiorno (2002) estimated that the production of round-wood from industrial plantations compared to world total (not including Canada, Western Europe and former Soviet Union) would increase from 33 percent in 1995 to 42 percent in 2010.
In New Zealand and South Africa 99 percent of industrial round-wood is produced from plantations (FAO, 1997; Pandey and Ball, 1998); in Chile 84-95 percent and in Brazil 60-62 percent (Pandey and Ball, 1998; FAO, 1999).
From these figures it can be seen that:
The objectives of forest plantation assessments and databases are to quantify the quantity and quality of forest plantation resources to allow policy and plan makers to make more soundly based decisions.
In the first global forest plantation assessment 1965 the area of "man-made planted forests" was estimated including European countries, USA and Canada but excluding e.g. former Soviet Union and China (FAO, 1967).
In 1980 FAO estimated the gross area of plantations for 76 tropical countries only (FAO, 1982) and added later non-tropical developing countries and small islands of Oceania into the 1980 data set (FAO, 1988). The 1990 Forest Resources Assessment net forest plantation areas (gross areas multiplied by a reduction factor of 0.7) were reported for both tropical and non-tropical developing countries to reflect losses after establishment (FAO, 1995a). Reduction factors were further refined by countries and regions (FAO, 1995b, 2001b, 2002a) and results given for industrial and non-industrial plantations.
The Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA 2000) definition of forest plantation was (FAO 2001, App. 2): "Forest stands established by planting and/or seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation. They were either:
In FRA 2000 gross forest plantation areas were reported for each country. In developing countries the maximum of eight classifications including Acacia, Eucalyptus, Hevea, Tectona, Other broadleaves, Pinus, Other coniferous and Unspecified were reported according to ownership (industrial or non-industrial) and ownership (public, private, other, unspecified). In industrialized countries of the temperate and boreal zones no tree species distributions, purpose or ownership was reported.
Although FRA 2000 forest plantation data was derived and validated in a comprehensive, transparent and participatory manner, the coverage remained incomplete. A summary is:
In recognition of the need to improve the scope and reliability of forest plantation data FAO established a forest plantation database that allows better understanding of global, regional and national status and trends. Entries were made for four different database tables:
The Global Forest Resources Assessments contained gross area information of forest plantations including:
Gross area |
FRA 1980 |
FRA 1990 |
FRA 2000 |
PDB |
Countries |
104 |
109 |
173 |
141 |
Observations |
214 |
237 |
1,411 |
2,388 |
The PDB was designed to complement and supplement the FRA 2000 forest plantation database status and trends between countries and regions.
Countries were divided according to gross plantation area: large (>1 million ha), medium (> 100,000 ha), small (> 10,000 ha) and minor (< 10,000 ha) and gross area developments assessed according to expanding, stable/constant or decreasing.
The following trends were observed:
Polarisation appears to be occurring in plantation development - large are becoming larger and small are becoming smaller.
There were 490 forest plantation species recorded in primarily tropical and sub-tropical countries. Most of the tree species were used, however, in very few countries: 262 in one country only and 90 in five or more countries. The most commonly distributed broadleaf species included Eucalyptus camaldulensis (67 countries), Tectona grandis (50), Swietenia macrophylla (38), Eucalyptus grandis (37), Eucalyptus tereticornis (36), Gmelina arborea (34), Eucalyptus globulus (26), Eucalyptus saligna (26), Eucalyptus citriodora (25), Azadirachta indica (22), Eucalyptus robusta (22) and Acacia auriculiformis (21). The most commonly distributed coniferous species recorded included Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis (49 countries), Casuarina equisetifolia (23), Pinus patula (23) and Pinus radiata, (17).
Reporting of species gross area data was very incomplete. From a preliminary analysis of a subset of 28.2 million ha in which specific species were reported the most common included: Pinus radiata, 14 percent; Tectona grandis, 9 percent; Pinus merkusii, 3 percent; Acacia nilotica, 3 percent; Pinus halepensis, 2 percent; Acacia auriculiformis, 2 percent; Eucalyptus grandis, 2 percent; E. globulus, 1 percent; Pinus roxburghii, 1 percent; and Dalbergia sissoo, 1 percent.
The global estimate for Hevea (rubberwood) plantations in 2000 was 9.9 million ha (FAO, 2001; Carle et al. 2002) and has become a significant source of wood and fibre particularly in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and increasingly China, Viet Nam and India.
From 1992-2000 inventories poplar plantation gross areas in 25 countries were reported to be 7.1 million ha (Ball, 2000). China reported 6 million ha of poplar plantations, with 0.1-0.3 million ha in each of France, Iran, Argentina, Italy, Hungary and Spain. Poplar plantations in China and Europe have had a long tradition. Generally, the area and productivity of poplar plantations has increased.
Some forest plantation species predominate nationally, including 4.6 million ha of Cryptomeria japonica and 2.5 million ha of Chamaecyparis obtusa in Japan (Gaston et al., 2000) and 6 million ha of Cunninghamia lanceolata in China (Fung, 1994).
According to the PDB references, Paraserianthes falcataria (formerly Albizia falcataria) had the highest average mean annual increment (MAI) of all species with 29 m3 ha-1 yr-1. Among the species with average MAI over 20 m3 ha-1 yr-1 Eucalyptus and Pinus species were most common (E. deglupta, E. grandis, E. urophylla, E. regnans, E. saligna, P. pseudostrobus, P. radiata, P. merkusii, P. elliottii and P. patula). Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia magnium, Maesopsis eminii and Gmelina arborea also exceeded the limit of 20 m3 ha-1 yr-1. The valuable hardwood species Dalbergia sissoo (9 m3 ha-1 yr-1), Swietenia macrophylla (9 m3 ha-1 yr-1) and Tectona grandis (8 m3 ha-1 yr-1) were among the least productive species when measuring productivity on volume growth only.
A comparison of MAIs between the PDB and previous FAO reports is given in Table 1. Other sources for extensive MAI estimates are Webb et al. (1984) and Wadsworth (1997).
Table 1. Mean annual increment (MAI) by species by different sources
Species |
MAI - m3 ha-1 yr-1 | |||
FRA 2000 |
FAO 2000 |
FAO 1998 |
FAO 2002 | |
Carle |
Brown |
Pandey & Ball |
PDB | |
Acacia auriculiformis |
6−20 |
6.5−10 |
9−18 | |
Acacia magnium |
8−19 |
10−15 |
15−37 | |
Acacia mearnsii |
14−25 |
12−24 | ||
Araucaria angustifolia |
8−24 |
8−16 | ||
Araucaria cunninghamii |
10−18 |
10−24 | ||
Casuarina equisetifolia |
6−20 |
1.5−7.5 |
6−18 | |
Casuarina junghuhniana |
7−11 |
|||
Cordia alliodora |
10−20 |
|||
Cryptomeria japonica |
8 |
|||
Cupressus lusitanica |
8−40 |
8−25 | ||
Dalbergia sissoo |
5−8 |
3−5 |
4−10 | |
Eucalyptus camaldulensis |
15−30 |
10−21 | ||
Eucalyptus deglupta |
14−50 |
17−35 | ||
Eucalyptus globulus |
10−40 |
8−29 | ||
Eucalyptus grandis |
15−50 |
14−35 | ||
Eucalyptus robusta |
10−40 |
11−28 | ||
Eucalyptus saligna |
10−55 |
13−48 | ||
Eucalyptus spp. |
4−25 |
1−20 |
11−31 | |
Eucalyptus urophylla |
20−60 |
20−40 | ||
Gmelina arborea |
12−50 |
12−19 |
16−28 | |
Leucaena leucocephala |
30−55 |
18−42 | ||
Pinus caribaea var. Caribaea |
10−28 |
10−23 | ||
Pinus caribaea var. Hondurensis |
20−50 |
15−22 | ||
Pinus elliottii |
15−25 |
10−24 | ||
Pinus kesiya |
6−10 |
11−21 | ||
Pinus oocarpa |
10−40 |
11 |
10−32 | |
Pinus patula |
8−40 |
15−25 |
11−30 | |
Pinus radiata |
12−35 |
18−24 |
13−26 | |
Pinus taeda |
7 |
12−30 | ||
Swietenia macrophylla |
7−11 |
5−7.5 |
8−13 | |
Tectona grandis |
6−18 |
4−18 |
2−6.3 |
7−13 |
Terminalia ivorensis |
8−17 |
5−12.5 |
8−15 | |
Terminalia superba |
10−14 |
5−12.5 |
10−16 | |
Forest plantations are assuming an importance in round-wood, fibre, fuel-wood and non-wood forest products supply far in excess of their representation by forest area. Recommendation: There is an urgent and critical need to improve both the quantity and quality of plantation data on which sound policy, planning and monitoring can be based.
Data collection for developing countries was done by FAO in the past, with data from industrialized temperate and boreal zone countries collected by UN/ECE/FAO. This led to different procedures and levels of data collection. Recommendation: Greater harmonization of methods for plantation data collection and reporting must be implemented in the Global Forest Resources Assessment in close collaboration with countries.
The definition and concepts of plantations must be harmonized. The collaborative work undertaken between FAO, IPCC, IUFRO, CIFOR, UNEP and other experts in harmonization of forestry related definitions during meetings serves as an excellent avenue for harmonization of plantation definitions (FAO, 2002b). Up to now the planted forests of indigenous species in industrialized countries are poorly represented in the context of global planted forest resources.
It has not always been possible to distinguish forest plantations from natural forests in those countries where natural species were grown on long rotation, mixed-species, mixed age plantings in temperate and boreal regions. The distinction between natural forests and plantation forests was more clear-cut if plantings were of single species (indigenous or introduced), uniform planting densities, even age classes, shorter rotation, intensively managed, as often found in tropical and sub-tropical regions.
There is a need to recognize semi-natural forests which are neither strictly natural forests with minimal management nor plantation forests with intensive management, but which provide critical wood and non-wood forest product supplies and valuable social, cultural, environmental and economic values. Semi-natural forests may be selectively harvested for wood and non-wood forest products, receive enrichment planting and/or seeding or have silvicultural treatments to enhance growth and yield. The wider planted forest classification can potentially include indigenous species, particularly in Europe and North America which have been reported as natural forests in previous FAO Global Forest Resources Assessments, including FRA 2000. Recommendation: The type and intensity of management, particularly enrichment planting and/or seeding be used to assist countries to determine whether their semi-natural forests qualify as a type of planted forest.
During FRA 2000 there were generally poor responses by countries to questionnaires to determine plantation areas by species, planting rates, purpose, ownership, age class distributions, mean annual increments, rotation lengths and harvest yields. Recommendation: New mechanisms be explored to improve the collaboration and transparency between FAO and the countries, focal agencies and persons at country and regional levels and national and international consultants in updating and extending the plantation database.
In order, China, India, Russian Federation, United States, Japan, Indonesia, Brazil, Thailand, Ukraine and the Islamic Republic of Iran reported the top ten forest plantation areas, which accounted for 79 percent of the global forest plantation resources (FRA, 2000). One province in these countries can contain more plantations than many other countries around the globe. Recommendation: Consideration be given to collection of sub-national plantation data in the major plantation countries.
For meaningful analysis, resolution of the problem of reporting gross rather than net forest plantation areas is critical. The reduction factors used in the 1990s were simplistic and could not effectively reflect the reality on the ground. Recommendation: Conduct samples in key countries using modern technology and ground proofing to derive more scientifically proven reduction factors taking advantage of FAO's launching of support to National Forest Assessments in developing countries to include forest plantation resource assessment.
The present plantation database was sourced from over 400 documents including FAO official forest resources assessments, outlook studies, project documents and case studies supplemented by country and consultant reports, books, journals, working papers, proceedings of scientific meetings, projects and questionnaires. Although the PDB contains over 8,000 observations it is only a first step to establishing a more comprehensive database to service FAO member countries, particularly policy makers and planners wishing to prepare outlook studies for future supplies of forest products from forest plantations. Further parameters can be added as more comprehensive data and links are received. Ultimately the PDB will be linked to other FAO databases including the global information system on forest genetic resources; forest fires; pest management and mangroves as appropriate.
The current PDB is available through the FAO website: www.fao.org/forestry/plantedforest in a simple, user friendly basis, including by region, country, species and parameter (purpose, MAI, planting rate, rotation length). Recommendation: User feedback be invited to supplement and validate the forest plantation data with new entries, links and references.
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Ball, J., 2000. Synthesis of National Reports on Activities related to Poplar and Willow Areas, Production, Consumption and the Functioning of National Poplar Commissions. FAO, IPC, Rome, Italy. 25 p.
Carle, J., P. Vuorinen & A. Del Lungo, 2002. Status and trends in global forest plantation development. Forest Products Journal 52(7/8): 12-23.
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FAO, 2002b. Second expert meeting on harmonizing forest-related definitions for use of various stakeholders. FAO, Rome, Italy. 354 p.
Fung, L.E., 1994. A literature review of Cunninghamia lanceolata. Commonwealth Forestry Riview 73(3): 172-192.
Gaston, C., D. Ciohen & D. Fell, 2000. Wood market trends. Japan. Forintek Canada Corp., Forest Renewal BC, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service. 32 p.
Pandey, D. & J. Ball, 1998. The role of industrial plantations in future global fibre supplies. Unasylva 49(193): 37-43.
Thomberlin, D. & J. Buongiorno, 2001. Timber Plantations, Timber Supply and Forest Conservation. In: Palo, M., J. Uusivuori & G. Mery, (eds.). World Forests, Markets and Policies World Forests, Volume III. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 85-94.
Wadsworth, F.H., 1997. Forest production for Tropical America. United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 710. 563 p.
Webb, D.B., P.J. Wood, J.P. Smith & G.S. Henman, 1984. A guide to species selection for tropical and sub-tropical plantations. Tropical Forestry Papers 15. Unit of Tropical Silviculture, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. 256 p.
1 FAO, Forest Resources Development Service, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. [email protected];
Website: http://www.fao.org/forestry/index.jsp