AGROFORESTRY PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT

Understanding silvopastoral systems

Blesilda M. Calub ([email protected])

Of the various types of agroforestry, silvopastoral systems are the least studied, even though many such systems exist. An agroforestry practice where trees, animals and pastures are deliberately combined to obtain benefits and services is called a silvopastoral system. The integration of these components can vary both in time and in space.

In forest or fruit tree plantations, animals serve as "live mowers" that check weed growth. They may graze on the pastures grown under the trees or feed directly on tree leaves. Adding animals to tree-based systems intensifies the productivity of the land, through any or a combination of the following:

• additional income from the sale of animals
• improved family nutrition from animal products
• organic matter accretion from manure

• better management of the understory vegetation

On the other hand, trees and shrubs can serve the important role of bridging the gap in fodder supply during the critical dry months of the year. Many fodder trees have high contents of crude protein, digestible fibers, macro and micronutrients. Additionally, trees tolerate a wide range of climate, stabilize sloping lands from erosion and rehabilitate degraded grasslands. Soil conditions are improved by contributions from leaf fall and nitrogen fixation by some species.

Types of silvopastoral systems

Different systems exist depending on the system objectives, client preferences and management practices. Likewise, tree species, animals, pastures, soil, climate, other vegetation, land-use patterns and planting configurations also contribute to the development of a variety of systems. Some common types and examples of silvopastoral systems are as follows:

a. Fodder bank systems

Trees are planted as close as 1m x 1m and are cut regularly to induce maximum herbage production. In Batangas, in Southern Luzon, Philippines, the cut herbage is usually carried to animal feeding stalls. In southwest Queensland, Australia, sheep or goats are brought to the plots and allowed to forage on the cut branches of naturally-growing mulga trees (Acacia aneura). The system is called fodder bank, which provides reserve fodder when it is in short supply, usually in the summer months.

Model of a silvipastoral system

A protein bank is a type of fodder bank which intentionally chooses trees, shrubs and pasture legumes with high protein-containing leaf biomass. Commonly used species include ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), kakawate (Gliricidia sepium), desmodium (Desmodium rensonii), centro (Centrosema pubescens) and kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides).

The three-strata forage system is another type of fodder bank developed in Indonesia. It involves the planting of forages, shrubs and trees to form three canopy layers or strata in a unit of land. Pasture grasses, vines and herbs occupy the lower strata; shrubs occupy the middle strata and trees occupy the upper strata. The combination of grasses and trees can ensure year-round supply of fodder.

b. Live fence or boundary systems

Single or double rows of fodder trees are planted along farm boundaries. The trees have the dual purpose of providing fodder and serving as live fence posts. If intended to enclose animals, the trees are usually planted densely, as in hedges, to prevent animals from getting out. In Palawan, Philippines some farmers use the thorny camachile (Pithecellobium dulce) to confine goats and prevent them from straying into crop plots. In some parts of Africa, thorny species are planted as thick hedges to fence off livestock from wild animals.

A fodder bank of Trema orientalis trees and Setaria sphacelata pasture grass.

c. Hedgerow intercropping systems

Fodder trees, mostly ipil-ipil, are planted as hedges in single, double or triple rows. The spaces in between hedgerows are planted with pasture grasses. Such systems are found on some private farms in Queensland. As in fodder banks, herbage may be cut and carried to animal feeding stalls. The more common practice is to let the animals forage on the cut tree branches and pasture grasses.

On sloping lands, hedgerows can be planted along contours for the added benefit of controlling soil erosion. This is exemplified by SALT II (simple agro-livestock technology) which is being promoted in Mindanao, Philippines.

d. Tree plantation + animal grazing systems

The understory of tree plantations is utilized as grazing area for cattle, sheep and goats. The plantation may be of forest trees, fruit trees, coconuts, oil palms or rubber. The Nasipit Lumber Company in Agusan, Mindanao, Philippines allows cattle to graze freely on improved pasture grasses planted under trees of lumbang (Aleuritis molucana). In parts of Sri Lanka, as well as in Bicol, Quezon and Batangas, Philippines cattle and goats graze on indigenous forages growing under coconut plantations. In Malaysia, sheep, goats and poultry are found grazing under oil palm and rubber plantations. Some authors include bee keeping in citrus orchards as another from of silvopastoral system.

e. Indigenous cut-and-carry systems

As the name implies, the fodder is cut and carried to animal stalls. Farmers of Batangas, a traditional livestock-growing province in the Philippines, have long been practicing this. Ipil-ipil and kakawate are the most preferred fodder tree species. However, after the psyllid infestation on ipil-ipil, farmers shifted back to their traditional practice of using indigenous fodder trees and shrubs (IFTS). The more important IFTS include anabiong (Trema orientalis), binunga (Macaranga tanarius), kalios (Streblus asper) and dalunot (Pipturus arbrescens). In Nepal, Artocarpus and Ficus species are commonly used.

f. Wildlife silvopastures

Silvopastoral systems are not only confined to livestock or domesticated animals. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Agroforestry Center promotes silvopastures to ensure forage, shelter, habitat and "travel lanes" for a number of different types of wildlife such as herbivores, birds and bats.

In this system, tree species combinations and planting configurations are chosen to meet the habitat requirements of specialized wildlife species. Standing dead trees are purposely left to serve as homes or nests for small wildlife and cavity dwellers. Growth of a diversity of the understory grasses and herbs needed by wildlife is favored through management of the upper story trees. Travel lanes or corridors are purposely created to allow movement of certain wildlife to and from several silvopasture habitats to avoid isolation. Travel lanes also direct the access of wildlife to wetlands or water sources.

Some challenges and realities

a. Which tree species?

A major dilemma in planning a mixed production scheme such as a silvopastoral system is finding the "right" tree to meet the needs of the system and the client. Which trees can withstand regular defoliation? How much edible biomass can be produced by a particular fodder tree? What is the nutrient composition? How about anti-nutritive factors?

b. Which pasture species?

Which of the existing improved pasture grasses can be appropriately combined with trees? At what proportions and configurations can they be interplanted? How would the presence of trees affect their growth, regrowth and nutrient contents? Which pasture species can grow in particular soil and climatic conditions? What about pasture legumes? How can the poor productivity of native Imperata, Themeda or Chrysopogon grasslands be made more productive by silvopastoral systems?

c. What animal species to integrate?

The compound stomach of ruminants enables them to convert plant materials into animal proteins, thus making them highly suitable for integration into silvopastoral systems. Ruminants include cattle, carabaos, goats and sheep. The horse, though not a ruminant, is also important in silvopastoral systems, especially in hilly areas where they provide draft power for transporting farm inputs and products.

The decision of what animal species to integrate into smallholder systems is related to the question, "Who takes care of the animals?" Men prefer large animals like cattle and buffalo, while housewives and children prefer small animals like goats and sheep.

d. What is the appropriate carrying capacity of particular silvopastures?

This is where basic research is needed. How many animals can be supported by a given tree + pasture stand over a given period? How much edible herbage can a particular tree species produce? How often can trees be cut regularly to meet animal demand for fodder but not overharvest them? How many fodder trees should be planted to be able to support a given number of animals? What is the appropriate planting configuration to maximize tree herbage yields? For plantation systems, what is the appropriate plant spacing to allow understory pasture grasses to grow? At what age of the tree plantation can animals be allowed to graze without endangering the trees?

These are but some of the questions only a few have answers so far.

Silvopastoral systems provide an option for obtaining additional income and services from the tree + livestock + pasture integration. In some cases, there are also direct benefits for wildlife conservation. However, before such advantages can be realized, a clearer understanding of the system is needed in order to manipulate the components for optimum gains. Basic questions have to be answered.

However, the work does not have to be done by researchers alone. Many farmers have indigenous knowledge of effective tree + livestock + pasture schemes, which when combined with scientific research, can increase the current knowledge on silvopastoral systems. The objectives will assess how and why it works, to determine options for improvement and to promote the system to a wider set of stakeholders. The author is a university researcher at the Farming Systems and Soil Resources Institute, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, 4031 Laguna, Philippines.

References: (1) Biggelaar DC. 1996. Farmer experimentation and innovation. A case study of knowledge generation process in Agroforestry systems in Rwanda. Community Forestry Case Study Series No. 12. FAO. Rome; (2) Calub BM and RD Lasco. 1999. Indigenous trees and shrubs as fodder in the drought-prone areas of Batangas. Proceedings of the 36^th Annual Convention of the Philippine Society of Animal Science. Manila, Philippines; (3) Gordon JC, WR Bentley, SM Nor and HM Noor. 1990. A handbook on the management of agroforestry research. Winrock International, USA and South Asia Books, USA; (4) Gutteridge RC and HM Shelton. 1994. Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture. CAB International. Wallingford, UK; (5) Johnson RJ, MM Beck and JR Brandle. Undated. Windbreaks and wildlife. University of Nebraska Extension EC 91-1771-B. Author’s Note: The term silvopastoral system (with an "o") is used in most American literature. It is referred to as silvipastoral system (with an "i") in European publications.

Practicing agroforestry in the Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

Josefina T. Dizon ([email protected])

The Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve (MFR), with an area of 4,224 ha, is 65 km south of Manila, Philippines. It serves as an outdoor laboratory for forestry education and science; a watershed; a recreational/ ecotourism area; and a historical landmark.

But as in many upland areas in the Philippines, migrant farmers have occupied the MFR. Through the years, these upland farmers have established their farms through agroforestry. MFR farmers have been raising woody perennials, mostly fruit trees, in combination with agricultural crops.

An interview among 93 households, (which represent some 60 percent of the population) in Barangay Bagong Silang, an established community inside MFR, was conducted to

• identify the different species planted for food, fuelwood, fodder, timber and medicine
• investigate the silvicultural practices applied to these species
• identify factors affecting the use of these agroforestry species

• determine local beliefs, customs and traditions affecting the production and use of these species

The community

Barangay Bagong Silang is located some 4 km away from the town proper of Los Baños. It has a total land area of 451.11 ha. It has moderate to gentle slopes of about 30 percent, with elevations of 200 to 400 m above sea level. The relatively low elevation and gentle terrain have made the area an attractive place to farm and settle. The area has a Type 1 climate with two pronounced seasons, wet from May to December and dry from January to April. Rainfall averages 2 400 mm annually and temperatures range from 25°C to 27°C. The soil is generally of the Macolod clay-loam type, the texture of which is predominantly loam to silt loam.

About 150 households, with an average family size of five, are distributed in three sitios (villages) in Nagtalaok, Puting Lupa and Wakwa. An existing road links the barangay to the market centers in Los Baños and Bay, Laguna.

Gliricidia sepium is most often used as fuelwood by farmers in the Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines.

Bagong Silang is approximately 3 km away from the nearest road, via foot trails. Hence, horses are used to carry products to the nearest accessible road where regular jeepneys ply the route.

Farming is the primary occupation. Many of the farmers have been cultivating their farms for about 30 years. The average farm size is 2.54 ha.

Species used

The survey identified 22 species that farmers plant in their agroforestry farms. Of these, 20 were fruit/food trees. The species planted in Bagong Silang for food include

Lansium domesticum, Citrus nobilis, Nephellium lappaceum, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Persea americana, Mangifera indica, Annona squamosa, Annona muricata, Sandoricum koetjape, Chrysophyllum cainito, Psidum guajava, Averrhoa carambola, Manilkar zapota, Citrus maximus, Pouteria campechiana, Tamarindus indica, Theobroma cacao, Coffea sp., Citrus madurensis and Cocos nucifera. Only Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala were the nonfood trees utilized by the farmers. Of the 14 identified uses of these species, food, fuelwood and medicine were most important.

Silvicultural techniques

Source of planting materials. The study shows that the farmers rely heavily on raising their own seedlings. They bought economically important species like Citrus sp. and N. lappaceum from nurseries in Los Baños or Batangas. Farmers preferred grafted seedlings since they fruit much earlier than those raised from seeds. A few species were reported to be naturally growing on some farms.

Uses of agroforestry species planted.

Note: (1) and (2) are priority species.

Method of establishment. The majority of the species were established in the farms through the transplanting of seedlings. A few, like A. heterophyllus, M. indica, Coffea sp. and P. americana, were directly seeded. Farmers planted wildlings of species such as C. nucifera and Coffea sp. G. sepium was basically established through direct planting of cuttings. Some farmers reported that they did not need to plant species like P. americana, C. nucifera, Coffea sp., P. guajava, A. heterophyllus, G. sepium, S. koetjape and C. cainito as these grow naturally in the area.

Location of planting. The dominant cropping pattern in the area was mixed/mosaic planting, that is, the species were randomly mixed with other tree crops. Another system that was widely used was multistorey homegardens. Other farmers planted agroforestry species with shade-tolerant annual crops such as Zingiber officinale and Colocasia esculenta.

Since the species planted were hardy trees, farmers also planted them in the gullies and on steep slopes for soil stabilization. G. sepium was the most common species planted along the farm borders.

Spacing. In general, the farmers did not observe any regular spacing pattern for the different species as they were planted randomly in a mixed/mosaic fashion. Their spacings ranged from 1 m x 1 m to 20 m x 20 m, depending on the tree crop. The majority of the species had spacings of 3 m x 3 m and 4 m x 4 m.

Care and maintenance. For all tree crops, cleaning and brushing were the most common monthly care and maintenance activities. Some species like Coffea sp., Citrus sp. and G. sepium were pruned once or twice a year to enhance the productivity of the trees.

Not many farmers fertilized their tree crops. If they did, they did it once or twice a year and was limited to selected crops like C. nobilis, C. madurensis, L. domesticum and N. lappaceum. Only selected crop trees were sprayed with insecticides. Ring weeding was often done for newly established seedlings. Pollarding was only done for G. sepium, which was the most common species used for posts.

Associated beliefs, customs and traditions

Some farmers observed a few beliefs and customs, especially when they planted trees. They usually planted during a full moon. Other practices included planting with accompanying rice grains, filling the mouth with porridge while planting, planting with an upward hand position, planting with a full stomach and asking permission from the gods and goddesses of the forest before planting.

Summary and recommendations

There is a need to disseminate information to farmers regarding other potential uses of the trees that they plant. In addition, there is a need to quantify the amount of fuelwood obtained from the forest farms to determine the percentage contribution of these species to household fuelwood consumption.

With regard to the medicinal uses, there should be an extensive study on the medicinal properties of these species, the ailments they cure, and the preparation methods and dosages to use.

Most farmers raised their own seedlings, but they also bought asexually produced seedlings of Citrus sp. and N. lappaceum. Since farmers preferred grafted and budded seedlings, they need to be taught these propagation techniques. The author is an assistant professor at the Institute of Community Education, College of Public Affairs, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, 4031 Laguna, Philippines.

Participatory agroforestry: the Perur, India experience

Dr. S.R. Subramanian and Dr. Kezevino Aram ([email protected])

The process of development, in any society, should ideally be viewed and assessed in terms of what it does for an average individual. It also has to be seen in terms of the benefits and opportunities that it generates for people and how these are eventually distributed between men and women, the well-off and deprived, and across regions. It becomes necessary, therefore, to have a framework and to evolve strategies that forge and strengthen development and provide better opportunities for people.

A project geared toward this end was the Participatory Agroforestry for Poverty Alleviation and Environmental Restoration in Perur Block, a part of Coimbatore District, in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It was a spin-off from the Shanti Ashram poverty reduction workshop. The workshop was an exercise in microlevel planning, and it helped identify a number of strategies for poverty alleviation. One such strategy was the linking of the expertise of the Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding (IFGTB) and the need for diversification, expressed by the Perur Block farmers.

Participants were from the United Nations (UN) agencies, led by the then United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) resident coordinator, Mr. Hans Von Sponeck; vice-chancellors of three Coimbatore-based universities; and representatives of state governments and community-based organizations. The executive agencies of the project were UNDP and the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF). The Shanti Ashram, a grassroots organization, was the implementing agency.

Perur Block has 26 villages with a population of over 120 000. Shanti Ashram has initiated a number of integrated rural development programs in the villages of Perur Block over the past decade. The Ashrams’ participatory approach of working at a block level has generated useful information and knowledge.

The project aimed to train 250 men and 250 women farmers of Perur Block on agroforestry; form youth and women’s groups to sustain the project; and develop and train participatory research appraisal (PRA) teams. The 26 villages were grouped into nine clusters with three villages each. One field worker was in charge of each cluster.

The key dimensions of the methodology adopted were as follows:

• capacity building z development of local expertise in putting together a village-level land-use plan
• promotion of agroforestry through training, providing high-quality planting materials and setting up model farms

• establishment of nurseries and sapling distribution outlets, and a tree growers association

In effect, Mahatma Gandhi’s vision of sarvodaya inspires the work of the Ashram. Gandhi said that a population with an ancient rural tradition must find its own model of integrated rural development.

Highlights of the project

Although the project initially set out to train only a small number of farmers, almost the entire farming community of Perur eventually joined in. Over 600 farmers participated. One-third of them were small- and medium-scale farmers.

The coming together of a highly specialized institution like the IFGTB and a specialized grassroots organization like Shanti Ashram created not only a framework for the transfer of technology, but also a process of mutual appraisal and education. With the publication of a series of educational materials in Tamil, continuing education and dissemination of experiences were guaranteed.

Other highlights of the project included the following:

• The farmers were exposed to the need for agroforestry, the species suited for various agroclimatic conditions, agroforestry models, intercropping, and the economics of agroforestry, through seminars. Scientists of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, IFGTB, Department of Agriculture and Shanti Ashram interacted with the villagers.

• Simultaneous PRA exercises were carried out in all 26 villages. The land available for tree planting and the tree species required were identified. The farmers visited other farmers’ fields devoted to agroforestry.

• Around 200 school children from ten schools formed a Green Brigade. They were trained in agroforestry and environmental protection. They became extension agents responsible for creating the demand for tree seedlings. Other organizations helped in procuring, raising, stocking and distributing the seedlings in the villages.

• Farmers learned much from their interactions with scientists of IFGTB and workers of Shanti Ashram, particularly on ensuring the proper growth and sustainability of the planted trees.

• Ten village-level nurseries were established, complete with fences, water facilities and storage. IFGTB trained the interested villagers on nursery management and care. This generated employment in the villages, apart from supplying quality seedlings locally at a lower cost.

Sustainability

What is most important in such experiments is the sustainability and replicability of the project with respect to technical, financial and institutional feasibilities. Ten model farms were established in farmers’ lots with various combinations of trees, fruit trees, fodder and other crops. Nine tree growers’ associations were also formed and trained.

Indeed, what emerged from these activities was the quadrangular model of microplanning where first, the village communities participated; second, the voluntary organizations like Shanti Ashram helped; and third, the government’s development agencies facilitated the process of informed development, supported by the expertise of technical institutions like IFGTB. This quadrangular model of planning, implementation and evaluation visibly reduced poverty in Perur.