SECTION A. CURRENT FISHERIES SITUATION

1. THE ROLE OF FISHERIES IN THE ECONOMY: SITUATION AND TRENDS

1.1 The role of fisheries in the regional economy

Sub-Saharan Africa is endowed with substantial marine and inland fisheries resources, and regional fisheries have developed significantly over the last thirty years. However, against a general background of macro-economic difficulties, its performance appears to be an exception compared to most agricultural sub-sectors. Fisheries play an important role as a major contributor to food supplies and rural employment in foreshore areas, and as a significant foreign exchange earner. However, since the beginning of the 90's, trends for the main fishery parameters have generally tended to stabilise (Table 1).

Between 1980 and 1990, total gross revenue from domestic landings (at ex-vessel, current price) almost doubled from about US$ 965 million to nearly US$ 1.8 billion in 1990. There is little information on the generation of value added by the fishery industry. Based on current prices and using estimates of gross value of landings, it appears that the average contribution of the fishery sector to agricultural GDP increased from 2.6% in 1980 to 3.7% in 1990, and is estimated at about 4% for 1994. Taking into account the total value-added generated (including the secondary sector and various incomes and revenues such as those obtained from access agreements with foreign fishing fleets, licence fees, taxes and levies), the fishery sector's contribution to the regional economy is actually greater. In general, the sector plays an important role in the economy of coastal areas, where alternative sources of employment and food supply are often quite limited.

Countries for which the fishery sector contributes over 5% to total GDP or to foreign currency earnings include Mauritania, Senegal, Madagascar, Namibia, Mali, Ghana, Seychelles and Mozambique.

Contribution to food supply

From 1973 to 1990, the sector was able to provide on average over 20% of the population's total animal protein intake. This contribution declined slightly thereafter to about 18% in 1994, reflecting the trend observed for per caput fish consumption, which peaked at 9.4 kg in 1982 (largely above the world average) and fluctuated around 8.5 kg from 1983 to 1990. Consumption seems to have significantly decreased since then, falling to only 6.8 kg in 1994 - its lowest level since 1968. However, this reduction of supply does not stem from a decline in demand, which can be assumed to be commensurate to population growth (2.9%); rather it results from the combined effect of stagnating imports and a smaller share of domestic production retained for local markets. Consequently, total fish supply has not kept pace with increasing demand. Nevertheless, the relative importance of fish for food security has not declined, as similar drops in meat consumption have taken place.

Contribution to the balance of trade

More and more domestic marine production is exported outside the Region, mainly the production from industrial vessels, but also an increasing proportion of the catch from small-scale fisheries. Between 75 to 85% of exports are directed to the European Union (EU). Globally, the sector continues to be an important foreign exchange earner. Since 1984, the trade balance has been positive in value terms and Sub-Saharan Africa has remained a net fish exporter. Fish trade generated a surplus of about US$ 322 million in 1994, with the total value of exports estimated at US$ 1 070 million. Furthermore, substantial revenues in hard currency also accrue from various type of compensation, royalties and fees from fishing agreements negotiated with non-coastal countries. As an order of magnitude, in 1993, it is estimated that gross revenues and compensations (licence fees excluded) from the fishing agreements in force between the EU and Sub-Saharan African States amounted to about 285 million ECU or nearly US$ 300 million.

Contribution to employment

Regional fisheries are labour intensive. An estimated 8 million people (nearly 20% of total agriculture workforce) are directly or indirectly involved in the sector, including some 2 million full-time artisanal fishers, with a little more than half being engaged in the marine sector. Women play an important role in fish processing and marketing, particularly in western Africa. Most of this employment is generated in remote inland or coastal areas, far from the main urban settlements, thereby helping to slow down the rural exodus. In small island states, such as Cape Verde, Seychelles or Sao Tome and Principe, more than one third of agricultural workers are engaged in fishery related activities.

Regional figures mask a significant heterogeneity in the situations at sub-regional or country levels. Regarding major biological and economic indicators, important differences exist between the eastern and western halves of the continent: for instance, countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean ensure 85 % of marine domestic landings, while 70 % of inland catches are taken in the eastern part of the Region. Differences are particularly marked on the western coast: the northern and southern areas are characterised by abundant resources and low population densities, while the Gulf of Guinea area shows opposite pattern. As a consequence, while the trade balance is positive in the northern and southern areas, it is largely negative in the Gulf of Guinea area.

1.2 The role of regional fisheries in world fisheries

In spite of its growing importance and contribution to the regional economy, the fishery sector remains a marginal contributor to world-wide fishery production. This is clearly apparent in the contribution of regional fisheries to the world harvest and to the international trade of fish and shellfish. In 1994, the world harvest of fish and shellfish from capture fisheries and aquaculture reached a record level of 109.6 million t; in the same year, domestic catches in Sub-Saharan Africa reached only 3.95 million t, with production from coastal countries having stabilised in the previous five years. Production from capture fisheries represented only 3.6% of total world production in 1994, and the regional share of world aquaculture production was even more limited at 0.13% The regional share of total world production decreased steadily from 5.6% in the period 1970-74, to 4.2% in the period 1980-84, and to 3.9 % for the period 1990-94. However, these figures only refer to domestic production; foreign vessels annually catch an estimated 1.21 million t in 1994 from regional waters, mostly (74 %) from the Atlantic Ocean.

Although the regional trade balance is positive in value, its contribution to international fish trade is not only marginal (less than 1% of the world total) but is also marked by a downward trend. This position will be exacerbated by the fact that the Region deals almost solely with the EU market, under favourable access conditions. This market will be less and less protected as the provisions of the 1994 GATT agreement are progressively implemented, with possible loss of market share for some countries.

Fish is important in the daily diet of African people. However, average per caput consumption of about 6.8 kg in 1994 means the Region has widened its gap to the world average of 13.6 kg. Nonetheless, the contribution of fish protein (18%) to total animal protein intake is still above the 16.1% world average.

The Region represents about 4% of the world labour forces involved in fisheries.

SECTION B. THE FISHERIES SECTOR: SITUATION AND TRENDS

Since the beginning of the nineties, total production (i.e. domestic and foreign catches combined) seems to have reached a plateau. From 1970 to 1990, production steadily increased, and in 1994, seemed to stabilise at around 5 million t (its level of 1975), mainly as a result of lower catches by distant-water fishing nations (Table 1). However, foreign catches represent almost 25% of total production. Another important feature unique to the Region is the relative importance of inland fisheries, representing over 30% of total catches.

Domestic production in 1994 stabilised at 3.94 million t and compares to the average of 3.99 million t for the period 1990-94. The relative share of inland (42 % of total in 1994) and marine production has remained equally constant. Although still marginal, aquaculture production seems to be taking off.

Considerable disparity exists at country level (Table 2), ranging from a production of less than 500 t (e.g. in Lesotho) to over 0.5 million t in South Africa. In 1994, five countries had a production over 300 000 t (South Africa, Senegal, Ghana, Tanzania, and Namibia) and provided 48% of Sub-Saharan domestic catches.

1. MARINE CAPTURE FISHERIES

Total marine production in Sub-Saharan Africa was estimated at about 3.5 million t in 1994. It is characterised by four main features: (i) the Atlantic Ocean plays a predominant role and provides over 85% of the total; (ii) although sharply decreasing since the beginning of the 90's, a high proportion of total production is still harvested by foreign fleets (35% of total marine catches in 1994); (iii) most demersal stocks are thought to be fully exploited, while the profitability of exploiting the untapped stocks of small pelagic resources is often uncertain; and (iv) most industrial fishing activities are export oriented, meaning that, for the time being, artisanal production provides the bulk of local fish supplies, with its share in total domestic landings increasing rapidly.

Marine fleets concentrate their fishing activities in three major fishing areas (Table 3): the Eastern central Atlantic (area 34, from Mauritania to Zaire); the Southeast Atlantic (area 47, covering Angola, Namibia and South Africa); and the western portion of the Indian Ocean, including the Red sea (area 51). The overall abundance and state of exploitation of major stocks in these three areas vary greatly in relation to the type of fishery or location. However, globally, most stocks, with the exception of some small pelagic species, are fully exploited and there are limited prospects for increasing production from the marine environment.

In 1994, 90% of total domestic marine catches were caught in the Atlantic Ocean (57% in area 34) and only 10% in the Indian Ocean. Foreign catch within regional fishing areas totalled about 1.2 million t in 1994, compared to 2 million t in 1985.

The number of inter-governmental fishing agreements with non-coastal countries (it is estimated that they were 25 such agreements in force in the period 1983-85 against 22 in the period 1992-94) seems stable, although access conditions and related compensations have tended to become more stringent.

Most foreign catches (75%) still come from the Atlantic Ocean, with a noticeable drop in catches of small pelagics. The share of foreign catches, harvested in the Indian Ocean, composed essentially of tuna species, increased markedly after 1985.

1.1 Trends in production and status of stocks off the West coast

(Atlantic, Areas 47 & 34)

In the Atlantic Ocean, total catches amounted to about 2.97 million t in 1994, against 3.32 million t in 1990 (excluding landings by Morocco). Catches were recorded by 18 coastal countries and more than 28 non-coastal countries (against 22 in 1990), confirming the international character of many sub-regional fisheries. However, catches from distant-water fishing nations have declined sharply over the last five years, mostly owing to decreased interest in harvesting small pelagics. Catches of tuna (tunas, bonitos, billfishes, etc.) have represented about 10% of total catches since the early seventies.

Overall, aggregated domestic catches have grown regularly over the last two decades. Over the period 1980-90, the rate of increase approached 20% and the share of coastal countries in total production increased regularly as well, from 46% to 63% (70% in 1994). Domestic production was estimated at 2.07 million t in 1994. Since 1992, available data seems to indicate a decreasing or stabilising trend towards the production levels of the late 80's, but this needs to be confirmed. South Africa, Senegal, Namibia and Ghana, which have catches over 250 000 t, provided 70% of the marine production from coastal countries exploiting areas 47 and 34.

In Area 47, catches from distant-water fishing amounted to only 422 000 t in 1994, which compares to the declared harvest of 1.25 million t in 1985. This production is attributable to ten non-coastal countries as follows: 75% to countries belonging to the former USSR, of which 70% to Russia ; 16% to Asian countries; and 9% to two countries of the European Union.

In Area 34, while foreign catches were estimated at 836 000 million t in 1980 and 700 000 million t in 1990, they were reported to amount only to 475 000 million t in 1994. In that year, more than 20 distant water fishing nations participated with total catch being harvested as follows: 50% by countries from the EU (Spain provided 68% of it); nearly 25% by eastern European countries; and over 10% by Asian countries. The main characteristic was the sharp decrease in catches by the transitional economies in eastern Europe, from nearly 350 000 t in 1992 down to less than 110 000 t in 1994 (Figure 14). This is clearly reflected in the severe drop in catches of small pelagic species in the sub-region.

The current stabilization of total production could be attributable mainly to: the full-exploitation of most high value demersal species sought by long distance and local fleet, reduced fishing for small-pelagic species by East European nations and growth in joint venture arrangements with more foreign vessels based locally under flagging arrangements. The magnitude of changes in landings is also illustrated by the large fluctuation in small pelagic resources (horse mackerel, sardines, etc.), which are usually greatly influenced by climatic changes - an expression of the considerable uncertainty about stability and long time-space scale variations for these species.

Area 47 is dominated by the Benguela upwelling system and supports relatively high productivity. South Africa, which produced over 500 000 t in 1994, provided 58% of domestic catches from the sub-region. Catches from Angola have decreased in recent years.

Following severe depletion in the seventies, the Cape hakes (Merluccius capensis and M. Paradoxus) provided the highest catches (266 468 t) in 1994; this is the result of a strict curtailment of foreign fleet activity and of the introduction of conservative TACs. Pelagic fisheries in the sub-region are dominated by sardine (Sardinops ocellatus) and anchovy (Engraulis capensis). The latter become the dominant species in landings when sardines catches declined in the early seventies following overfishing. The anchovy stock has been highly variable and shows an overall declining trend in biomass and catches. The northern component of the sardine biomass reportedly declined from approximately 800 000 t in 1992 to less than 100 000 t at the end of 1995 as a result of the unusually anoxic state of the coastal marine environment, indicating that the Benguela system in the region of Namibia and southern Angola is facing a severe environmental anomaly. The primary crustaceans in the sub-region are the red crab (Geyron maritae) and the rock lobster (Jasus lalandii). Despite TAC reduction, the status of the rock lobster is a cause for concern as catches have steadily declined since the fifties.

Area 34 covers 18 coastal countries and is characterised, with few exceptions, by the fact that most stocks extend beyond individual coastal countries EEZs. Stocks such as the horse mackerel can be shared by as many as seven countries. Appropriate management of tropical stocks seemed to favour species assemblages and communities rather than individual species, aggravating the difficulties of stock assessment and the subsequent adoption and implementation of appropriate management measures.

As in the southern part of the western coast, area 34 has also been recently characterised by large fluctuations in the landings of small pelagic resources, in particular horse mackerel and sardines. These stocks, which are primarily exploited by foreign fleets, are highly variable and difficult to assess as fleets tends to shift from one species to the other.

Most demersal stocks are fully exploited or overexploited, economically and biologically. Heavy fishing of traditional offshore stocks started with the steady increase in fishing effort after 1984: for example, in the area of Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone, recent assessments indicate that between 1991 and 1994 total biomass decreased by around 50%. This might be the result of fishing pressure or changes in climatic conditions with surprising effects such as the increase in landings of the globefish (Lagocephalus laevigatus) and of the high value cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis). The pink shrimp (Penaeus notialis), which is present in small concentrations from Senegal to the Congo, also appears to be heavily exploited.

High fishing effort now also extends in the northern zone of the sub-region, to cephalopods, hake and sparids, and pink spiny lobster stocks. Fishing is particularly intensive for shrimps, hakes and seabreams.

In the central zone of the sub-region (from Guinea to Gabon), resources are less abundant. The large trigger fish stock (Balistes spp.) has now virtually disappeared. Globally, fishing effort for demersal stocks has been concentrated on inshore zones and on juveniles. By contrast, the state of deep shelf and slope resources is not well known, but is thought to offer opportunities for further exploitation of the demersal stocks in most of the southern Gulf of Guinea. Small pelagics species (Sardinella aurita, S. maderensis, Scomber japonicus and Engraulis encrasicolus) are important, although they constitute a shared and variable resource. Those in the Western Gulf of Guinea are currently considered fully exploited; however, recent assessment of the stocks in the Southern Gulf of Guinea indicates a considerable increase in biomass.

1.2 Trends in production and status of stocks off the eastern coast

(Indian Ocean, Area 51)

Compared to the western portion of the Region, marine catches off the eastern coast were unimportant but now represent nearly 15% of total regional marine production. The marine fisheries of the sub-region have developed steadily since 1970. Total catches were recorded at 190 000 t in 1970, 230 000 t in 1980, 500 000 t in 1990, and 530 000 t in 1994. Noteworthy is the opposite trend (compared to the western coast) in the sharing of the catches between local and long distant fleets. The declared contribution of foreign fleets was 35%; 43%; 55% and 59% respectively, in 1975, 1980, 1990 and 1994. The composition of these long distant fleets has also evolved. In 1970, catches were reported mainly by USSR (26%) and Asian vessels. In 1994, over 65% were caught by France and Spain, and about 20% were harvested by Asian vessels. This trend mainly reflects the development of the tuna fishery in the Southwest Indian Ocean.

From the point of view of resources, the African western portion of the Indian Ocean is heterogeneous and few stocks are shared by more than two countries (with the noticeable exception of the tuna fishery, which entail the whole sub-region). However, a global review of resource assessments undertaken in the sub-region indicates an estimated potential yield (large pelagics excluded) as follows: 260 000 t available for artisanal fisheries, about 20 000 t of shallow water shrimp, 205 000 t from industrial fishing specifically for small pelagics, 62 000 t of demersal trawl fish, and about 7 500 t available for handliners operating on the banks.

In the southern Red Sea, few formal assessments of marine resources have been conducted and no unequivocal statement concerning the status of the fishery resources is possible. However, in the last 10 years reported catches have risen considerably. Catches have increased in Eritrea, where steps have been taken since 1994 to improve monitoring. Catches have also increased in Sudan, but no breakdown by species is available. In Djibouti, landings have declined slightly.

Coastal landings in the Mozambique-Kenya area have declined to 79 400 t after a peak of 101 000 t in 1990, probably indicating resource depletion rather than declining fishing effort. On the contrary, catches by the island states of the sub-region have grown substantially, from 59 000 t in 1985 to 117 8000 t in 1994. Over this period, increases ranged from 160% for the Comoros, 115% for Madagascar, 53% for Mauritius, and 32% for the Seychelles. However, catches appear to peak in the three latter countries in 1993. For the island group, catches of tuna are important and steadily increasing.

Important shallow water shrimp fisheries in Madagascar, Mozambique and Tanzania are a very important source of foreign exchange. Those stocks are fully exploited and more effective management frameworks are being implemented by the respective national fisheries administrations. In addition, there is reported full or overexploitation of many species of reef fish which support important local artisanal fisheries.

Concerning the availability of under-utilised resources, there are the following opportunities: increased catches of small pelagics in Mozambique, Somalia and Eritrea, though their commercial viability remains unknown; greater utilization of by-catch from the demersal and crustacean trawl fisheries in Tanzania, Mozambique and Madagascar; and greater catches in the artisanal fisheries of Madagascar, Somalia and Eritrea.

1.3 Fleet performance

The performance of the various fleets operating in regional marine waters is difficult to assess, not only because of the lack of socio-economic information, but because of current changes in fishing strategies. These are attributable to various factors, including environmental and economic changes affecting the exploitation of small pelagic species as well as to unregulated fishing effort in most demersal fisheries.

Although overall production is stabilising, this effect is unevenly distributed; Ghana, Senegal or Madagascar continue to record steady production increases while other countries, for various reasons, show downward production trends.

With a few exceptions (e.g., in Namibia), the economic and financial performance of both foreign (with the exception of the tuna fishery) and domestic industrial fleets has not been consolidated in recent years. The commercial viability of these fleets remain vulnerable compared with other world regions, as indicated by the turnover among local enterprises and foreign vessels fishing under access agreements. The difficulties encountered by national companies may often be due to the lack of suitable institutional frameworks for sectoral investment, and to shortcomings in supporting infrastructure. In the trawl fishery, financial susceptibility often results from overfishing, reflecting the lack of proper management. Overcapacity is particularly salient with vessels targeting cephalopods and shrimps. In the period 1985-1990, available data indicate that the domestic industrial fleet increased in the western region (by nearly 30% in terms of GRT), while stabilising in the eastern region.

Overall, the artisanal sector provides over 70% of domestic marine landings (tuna excluded) for both the eastern and western coasts (Namibia and South Africa excluded). In leading producing countries, such as Senegal, small-scale fisheries provided 80% of marine catches in 1994. Globally, the small-scale sector seems to have become more efficient in the last ten years, with higher catch rates per canoe. In addition, small-scale fisheries are increasingly oriented towards export markets, using more sophisticated supporting infrastructure and preservation technologies. Conflicts between small-scale and industrial fisheries have been a recurrent problem (e.g., in Guinea Conakry), but a growing number of countries are taking steps to reduce infringements in the coastal areas exploited by small-scale fishermen.

2. INLAND CAPTURE FISHERIES

Sub-Saharan Africa possesses vast and varied inland waters, with the larger water bodies alone covering some 520 000 km2. Large natural lakes (41% of aquatic surfaces) and river floodplains (34%) dominate. Larger reservoirs occupy only some 8% in surfaces. However, the expanse of the smaller reservoirs, mainly community water supplies and stock watering ponds, remains unknown in many countries. In addition to standing waters, there are some 35 000 km of main river channels.

In 1979, the potential catch from regional inland fisheries was estimated at 1.9 million t, an estimate which still seems reasonably valid for capture fisheries as we now know them. The general level of exploitation of natural stocks is high. In many areas, particularly in the floodplains, productivity of the aquatic systems is high compared with other tropical regions.

There has been a net increase in inland fish production during the last decade, from around 1.2 million t in 1980 to 1.66 million t in 1994 (Figure 3). The main producers are Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire, which contribute 70% of total harvests. African freshwater production is therefore relatively localised, with Lake Victoria alone producing a quarter of total African inland production.

Freshwater fisheries in Sub-Saharan Africa are almost entirely artisanal. The aggregated number of inland artisanal canoes on the continent stands grossly at about 230 000 units, compared with the estimate of about 160 000 in the mid-1980s. This growth seems to be confirmed by the estimated 40% increase in the number of canoes in six of Africa's major lakes of the Rift Valley from 1979 to 1989. As fishing effort continues to respond to the growing demand for fish, proper inland fisheries management is becoming more and more urgent. An immediate objective would be to avoid the collapse of stocks and the related costs of stock rehabilitation. However, management needs and priorities vary widely according to the type of fisheries concerned. Most freshwaters show signs of intensive exploitation, e.g., Lake Victoria. There are few fisheries that remain inaccessible, or lightly exploited, although there may be room for expanding fisheries in the open water areas of some of the lakes and reservoirs.

Although reservoirs continue to be created, those on larger river systems are at the expense of down- and upstream fisheries. Small reservoirs used for community water supplies and for livestock watering are mainly untapped for their fishery potential, but their overall contribution to inland catch potential will be relatively small unless natural productivity is considerably enhanced.

Indeed, the current production of the larger lake systems (lakes Cahora-Bassa, Chad, Edward, Kariba, Malawi/Nyassa, Mobutu/Albert, Mweru, Tanganyika, Victoria and Volta), which represents over 50% of total landings, is very close to their aggregate average potential. In general, as the demersal/inshore stocks of the large lakes are already subject to heavy fishing pressure, only the lightly exploited pelagic offshore stocks could sustain higher pressure (e.g., on Lake Tanganyika). Globally, there appears to be little scope for a substantial increase in supplies from large lakes, with the exception of Lake Chad, Lake Cahora-Bassa, and Lake Tana.

Additional catches can possibly be extracted from the large floodplains (e.g., in Mali, Sudan, Central Africa Republic), if that knowledge on the dynamics of the overall (bio-socio-economic) system improves. Current production from large floodplains is quite unpredictable, being subject to large fluctuations from climatic variations. For example, the Niger Delta floodplain in Mali produced 40 000 t in 1990 at the end of the last drought period, against about 80 000 t in the early seventies, and over 100 000 t in 1994; production from Lake Chad follows a similar pattern.

With the exception of limited quantities of Nile perch exported from Lake Victoria, the overall inland production is consumed in the Region, providing nearly half of local supply.

If production from inland waters could be sustainably increased, it is likely to derive from three sources: (a) some of the more remote small-medium lakes and rivers; (b) the lower value small pelagic lake fisheries; and (c) small water bodies that are now either underexploited or where productivity can be enhanced. But additional production may remain limited.

3. AQUACULTURE

Aquaculture has not been a traditional practice in Africa and remains a new form of food and income generation, in spite of various efforts since the fifties. In 1994, Sub-Saharan Africa contributed less than 0.2% to world aquacultural production.

FAO has aquaculture production records for 37 regional countries for the period 1984-1994. Although in a global context of aquaculture development Africa is the least advanced of all continents, aquaculture has developed well since the beginning of the 1990's. Regional production was estimated at 9 179 t in 1984, rising to 39 364 t in 1994. Excluding the production of seaweeds and ascidians, aquaculture production in 1994 reached 32 764 t. However, aquaculture statistics in Africa are not very reliable for two reasons: the relatively low economic importance of the sub-sector, and the lack of financial resources at institutional level to monitor developments and rural production.

The recent development of the sub-sector has not been homogeneous and only a few countries have registered significant increases in production. Of the 37 countries for which 1994 production records are available, only 5 countries (Nigeria, Zambia, South Africa, Madagascar and Kenya) produced more than 1 000 t, while another 13 countries reported production ranging from 100 to 1 000 t.

In the period for which data have been collected, some countries made significant progress: Nigeria doubled its production; Zambia had a steady and much faster growth with a fifteen fold increase in production, due to the development of rural aquaculture based on tilapia-pond farming; South Africa increased production tenfold, mainly through mariculture, although the rate of growth slowed down considerably after 1990; Madagascar showed a 17 fold increase in production, with very rapid development of carp and tilapia culture in rural areas of the highlands and, recently, with the development of shrimp culture (the result of joint research and development programmes undertaken by the Government and the industry. In Kenya, aquacultural growth has been steady with a six fold increase based on carp, trout, tilapia and shrimps, and involving both rural and more commercial sectors.

Species group data for finfish in 1994 show that the tilapias are the most important in terms of tonnage with some 13 300 t in 1994, followed by the catfishes (nearly 7 300 t), and ciprinids (nearly 4 200 t). Production of common carps has also grown rapidly

For other groups, molluscs are currently more important than crustaceans in terms of tonnage, with a consistent increase in production from 37 t in 1984 to 3 304 t in 1994. In this group, which includes ten species, the most important species is mussel, with 2710 t produced in South Africa in 1994. Oysters are cultivated in four countries. South Africa is the most important producer.

Some countries also started shrimp culture. The main species is the tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, farmed in Madagascar, Mozambique and South Africa. The group includes nine species of which four are freshwater.

A recent development is the farming of Euchema, an important source of revenue for the coastal communities of Zanzibar. The other country involved in seaweed farming is Namibia, where Gracilaria is being grown. Seaweed production started to grow rapidly from 1989, stabilising between 6 000 and 7 000 tonnes from 1990 to 1994.

In the period 1984-94, the value of aquaculture products increased from US$ 13.4 to US$ 75.8 million. The top species for 1994 were probably the tilapias as it is likely that a large part of the unclassified freshwater finfish consist of tilapias. However, and coming as somewhat of a surprise, the main group in 1994 were the catfishes, with a cumulative value of over US$ 22 million against slightly over US$ 21 million for the tilapias. Another important species is the common carp, with an overall value of US$ 6.7 million, followed by tiger prawn and rainbow trout valued respectively at US$ 4.4 and 4.3 million. The simple farming practices like that of Euchema in Zanzibar represented a significant contribution of US$ 1 million in 1994, providing substantial employment and revenues to the women who supervise the culture of this seaweed.

4. FISH UTILIZATION, DISTRIBUTION AND MARKETING

Fish is an important traditional food item in most African countries south of the Sahara, providing about 20% of total protein intake. It is marketed fresh, smoked, dried, salted or frozen and distributed primarily through informal channels.

4.1 Fish utilization and distribution

Fresh fish is preferred by African consumers. It therefore attracts a better price. It is generally marketed only near production centres, although traders will distribute fresh fish to most urban centres accessible by road. In most countries, packaging and hygiene are unsatisfactory. Fresh finfish consumption is growing slowly but steadily in percentage term (42% of total in 1970 and in 1980; 49 % in 1990 and 51 % in 1994), but it has more than doubled in volume since the 70's. High value fresh fish is also more and more in demand by exporters. It is generally exported in frozen form, but there is an increasing trade in fresh fish directly exported by air.

The most important traditional fish preservation technique in Africa is smoke drying. Depending on the market, the fish is dried to different moisture levels. A hard-dried product takes up to three days of hot smoking, but may keep for several months, allowing for long distance trading. There is active intra-regional trade in traditional smoked/dried fish. At present, cold smoked products are not common and rarely exported.

According to climatic conditions and fish size, solar drying is also commonly used to preserve fish. The fish may occasionally be salted before drying, although this product is not preferred by consumers in most countries. Dried fish is also actively traded over the African continent. The lesser quality products are also used for animal feed.

In some countries, such as Sudan and Ghana, wet salted fish is produced: whole fish is mixed with salt and left to ferment for several days without drying.

Frozen fish is essentially imported to supplement local production, for instance, in Côte d'Ivoire, Cameroon and Nigeria. Regional consumption of frozen fish multiplied nearly tenfold between 1971 and 1990. Altogether, it is estimated that over 1.2 million t of frozen fish are now traded every year within the Region. Imported frozen fish are usually small pelagic species originating from elsewhere in the region (e.g., sardinella from Mauritania, horse mackerel from Namibia), but sizeable amounts of herring or mackerel are also imported from Europe, notably from the Netherlands. The frozen fish are transported in insulated or refrigerated trucks and then distributed in the hinterland, sometimes ending up a thousand kilometres from import harbours. Retail traders buy the fish in blocks and, after thawing, usually sell it "fresh" or smoked. Prices of imported frozen fish are relatively low and often depress fish prices on local markets.

The consumption of canned products (in live weight equivalent) has been steadily decreasing since the beginning of the eighties while, during the period 1970-1990, the consumption of cured finfish has remained stable.

The bulk of fish offered for sale is produced by artisanal fishermen living in small coastal or rural communities, often with limited access to urban markets. Most fishery products are sold on local "street" markets. However, modern retail shops and supermarket distribution chains are expanding rapidly in the larger towns of many countries. Globally, fish distribution is still impaired by poor access and road conditions in many part of Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in the hinterland. This is the case for instance with the distribution of catches from the inland areas of Zaire, Congo, Ethiopia, Sudan, Central Africa and Mozambique.

4.2 Intra-regional trade

The volume of intra-regional fish trade is difficult to assess because of the importance of "informal" transactions and "re-export" of smoked fish according to price fluctuations between neighbouring countries. In 1991, INFOPECHE estimated that intra-regional trade only satisfied about 15% of regional import requirements for fish and fish products. A particular example of good intra-regional trade is the substantial development of trade in frozen fish between countries of Northwest Africa, where resources are relatively abundant and population densities low, and the Gulf of Guinea, countries where population densities and fish demand are high.

The major constraints to the development of intra-regional fish trade include high transport and stockage costs, poor handling practices, limited distribution networks, and a lack of harmonization and/or proper enforcement of fish trade regulations. In practice, even within the geographical limits of sub-regional economic groupings, tariff barriers and other restrictions on imports (e.g. quotas) persist, creating bottlenecks to fish distribution and more balanced supplies.

5. DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION AND NUTRITION

Most domestic production is utilised as food for local people (some 3.3 million t). In addition, about one million t of fish is imported, including about 0.5 million t from foreign fleet landings harvested in African waters. Apart from non-food uses, average per caput fish supply for the Region was reported as 6.8 kg in 1994, which constitutes an alarming drop (almost 25%) compared with previous estimates of 8.74 kg in 1980 and 8.97 kg in 1990, respectively (Figure 11).

Since 1970, three periods have characterised the evolution of this indicator, enabling the contribution of fish and fishery product to food security to be monitored. From 1970 to 1975, per caput consumption was barely increasing, fluctuating around an average of 7.8 kg, as domestic production was increasing significantly and the trade balance was globally stable. From 1976 to 1982, imports grew and average per caput consumption increased up to 8.8 kg, with a peak at 9.4 kg in 1982. It started declining (on average 8.4 kg) during the period 1983-1989 as the ratio gross imports:per caput declined from 4 to 2.7 over that period. Since 1990, this trend has been accentuated sharply.

Current trends in per caput fish consumption indicate that, despite significant increases in domestic production since 1970, it is increasingly difficult to maintain a sufficient volume of imports (around a quarter of total supply) to cope with population growth ( nearly 3% per annum) and increased urbanization. However, it should be noted that large differences exist among sub-regions and countries and within countries as well: per caput supply is below 1kg in countries such as Ethiopia (but is over 10 kg around Lake Abassa), Eritrea, Niger and Rwanda, between 1 and 4 kg in Burkina Faso, Burundi, Mozambique, Sudan or Zimbabwe; but it is above 20 kg in countries such as Congo, Gabon, Ghana, Mauritius, or Senegal (Table 4). Moreover, per caput consumption is still steadily increasing in countries such as the Gambia, Madagascar, Tanzania or Uganda. It is about 3 time higher in western than in eastern Africa.

Noteworthy, the proportion of freshwater fish in global supply has remained rather stable overtime, but currently seems to be on the increase: 44% in 1970, 34% in 1980, 36% in 1990, and 47% in 1993. It should also be noted that, in volume, trends for meat production and consumption (the main substitute for fish) show similar patterns. Although domestic meat production has steadily increased during that period (as for fish products), declining imports coupled with stable export and high population growth, are again the prime reason for decreasing per caput meat supply in the Region. However, once again important differences exist at country level.

The current per caput consumption figure of 6.8 kg/person/year for the Region is half the world figure (13.6 kg), but it should be stressed that fish is eaten more often in Africa than, for instance, in the Netherlands where fish consumption is 10 kg/person/year. This is because consumed portions are smaller in Africa, fish being typically consumed as an ingredient to sauce. Furthermore, occasional and subsistence fishing is generally unrecorded but is quite extensive in many countries.

Traditionally, vegetable proteins account for the bulk of African dietary intake (over 75%), and this will probably remain so in the near future. Fish consumption accounts, however, for a large part of total animal protein supply. For the region as a whole, fish contributed to 20% of animal protein supply in 1970, 24% in 1990, down to 18% in 1994 (Figure 12). However, significant differences exist among areas: in 1990, this ratio varied from about 37% in the western part of the region, 10% in the eastern part, and 21% in landlocked countries. More precisely, fish represents over 60% of animal protein intake in Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Sao-Tome and Principe; between 40 and 60% in Angola, Gambia, Liberia, Malawi, Senegal and Togo; but less than 10% in countries such as Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Niger, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe.

6. INTERNATIONAL TRADE OF FISHERY PRODUCTS

The overall evolution of international trade has been quite drastic over the last two decades. In value terms, trade was nearly balanced in the mid-seventies, then became increasingly negative following a very rapid expansion of imports from 1977 to 1981. Thereafter, imports decreased significantly and stabilised around US$ 700 million. With a background of steadily increasing exports, net trade became positive in the mid 80's and the region is now a net exporter of over US$ 300 million. This positive balance of trade is mainly attributable to the exports of tunas and crustaceans (Figure 10). While the trend can be considered positive, trade figures are to be interpreted with caution, not only because of the limited reliability of some data, but also because of high regional reliance on foreign fishing, which implies a significant amount of "artificial" imports and exports according to the status of products being shipped in and out of coastal countries.

6.1 Export

Exports in volume and value have grown steadily over the last two decades. In value terms (not deflated), exports have increased from around US$ 400 million in the late seventies to Table 4: Trade and supply by country (1993) over US$ 1 100 million in 1994. The main exporters are South Africa, Senegal, Mauritania, Côte d'Ivoire, Senegal, Madagascar and Mozambique (Figure 7 and Figure 9).

By commodity groups (Figure 5), the main exports from the region remain crustaceans and molluscs (shrimps and cephalopods essentially), followed by fresh/frozen fish, and canned fish (mostly tuna). Furthermore, only limited amounts of dried/smocked fish and fish meal are exported. In relative terms, the contribution of crustaceans/molluscs has tended to decrease, while that of fish (fresh/frozen and canned) has increased, reflecting the fact that most crustaceans/molluscs fisheries are reaching a state of maturity, if not of overexploitation, whereas other less export-oriented fisheries still allow for significant export opportunities.

These opportunities are increasingly being developed. For example, countries in the South West Indian Ocean have significantly increased exports of frozen and canned tuna over the last decade. Many countries also have a small but growing export trade in fresh and frozen fish, mainly to Europe. Freshwater fish is similarly being exported in greater quantities, especially from Lake Victoria. East African countries export dried shark fins and sea cucumber to the Far East.

Exports of crustaceans, especially of fresh or frozen shrimp, are expected to stabilise because of decreasing catch rates in most shrimp capture fisheries, increasing competition from cultured shrimp products from the Far East, and indices of stabilising demand for regional products on the major import market (i.e. the European Union). In this context, prospects for increasing exports will involve two courses of action: sustaining current trends in product diversification, and more participation in the harvesting and processing of resources currently exploited under agreements with countries from outside the Region.

6.2 Imports

In quantity terms, Sub-Saharan Africa remains a net fish importer. Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire, Cameroon, South Africa, Angola and Zaire rely heavily on imported fish in order to supplement domestic production, together representing over 70% of total regional fish imports.

Imports are essentially low value frozen and processed fish, with fish meal/oil and canned products remaining rather marginal (Figure 6). In recent years, imports of fish for human consumption have stabilised at around one million tonnes (compared to 210 000 t in 1970), even showing a slight decrease since 1990.

In countries such as Côte d'Ivoire, Congo, Nigeria and Togo, import volumes outstrip national production (Figure 8 and Table 4). In those countries, but also in Angola, the Cameroons, or Zaire, the reduction or stabilization of import volumes has had a significant impact on fish supply. In general, the volume of imports is often clearly linked to prevailing economic conditions, as in the case of Nigeria, Congo and Zaire.

7. TECHNOLOGY AND INFRASTRUCTURE

7.1 Small-scale sector

Modernization of fishing equipment and techniques (engines, echo sounders, more appropriate fishing nets, use of ice, etc.) have in many instances increased fishing capacity in the small-scale sector. This has often required making available complementary measures (e.g. organization of productor, institutional credit, affordable interest rate, training, etc.). In many countries, past and present development efforts have led to a progressive insertion of the small-scale sector within the formal economy and to greater efficiency in fishing and product valorization. This is reflected globally by the steady growth of small-scale fisheries production, increased motorization rates, increased use of ice for specific fisheries, and by growing linkages to the export markets.

To sustain this trend, strong support is required to develop increasingly 'modern' artisanal fisheries. In some cases, such a fishery will fill the gap between a rather subsistence-oriented small-scale sector and a sophisticated offshore industry, as is already the case in Ghana, Senegal, or Mauritius. However, experience and trends tend to show that gradual and sustained development efforts do, in the long run, lead to more efficient techniques and practices being adopted by all segments of the small-scale sector when national or local economic conditions become significantly more favourable.

The future challenge for small-scale fisheries is for coastal states to find appropriate ways of encouraging and facilitating this trend. This will often require a shift in policy from direct intervention to more incentive-oriented policies and regulations, as well as more adequate infrastructural support. Essential components of such a policy include greater fisher participation, the promotion of professional organizations, and more appropriate community-based and zoned management systems. Many countries have recognised the need for such measures and policy changes have been made in several instances.

Greater reliance on market forces with respect to pricing and supply of inputs has led to lesser price distortions. Adjustments in input prices followed, which in many instances have financially hurt the small-scale sector at first, obliging it to become more efficient (e.g., following the devaluation of the CFA Franc in 1994). This has been the case in many countries, but the small-scale sector has generally been dynamic enough to adjust, especially in countries with strong domestic demand.

The basic infrastructures and services provided to the small-scale sector remain quite inadequate, especially landing facilities and access roads, as well as adequate credit and frameworks for investment in support services and capital intensive processing/marketing facilities. Little progress has been made with respect to improving product quality, except in export-oriented fisheries.

7.2 Industrial and semi-industrial fisheries

Industrial fisheries developed significantly in the eighties, following a process of reflagging induced by changing access conditions. In the CECAF area (Morocco excluded) for example, the number of nationally-owned and registered trawlers increased by nearly 60 % between 1979 and 1989, from 741 to 1180 vessels. Local private investors now own and operate major industrial fleets in South Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal, Mauritania and Namibia. In general, and with the noticeable exception of Namibia, fleet size has been relatively stable in most countries since 1990; there has been a slight decrease in the number of foreign flagged vessels.

The composition of the industrial fleet reflects an emphasis on trawling for demersal species, with a high reliance on freezer trawlers. Recent trends in local fleets show a reduction in the size of vessel, following higher fuel costs, and the progressive replacement of ageing fleets by the acquisition of used but more recent vessels from Europe and the ex-USSR. With respect to foreign fleets, the major trend is the reduction in the number of large vessels from the ex-USSR and the increasing role of Asian countries.

The situation of the national industrial sector appears quite stable in most countries. However, this often obscures a process of consolidation to improve efficiency and financial viability. Globally, industrial fisheries appear to be slowly overcoming a decade of generally poor performances, after an initial development phase which was often too artificial (i.e. based on opportunistic joint-ventures, public fishing companies, motivated policies, etc.). Moreover, progress has been made in product quality, especially as a result of new EU policies.

Considerable progress has also been made regarding infrastructure, with the recent rehabilitation of several port facilities, and growing private investment in support services (cold stores, repair and maintenance). Also noteworthy is the growing importance of fish collection for exports, and in Madagascar, for example, many small collecting/processing companies have been set up in recent years. Such a development has led to a major reorganization of small-scale fishing activities, and (although initially export-oriented) to better standards of fish distribution within the country.

8. INVESTMENT IN THE FISHERIES SECTOR

The regional share of total direct foreign investment in developing countries dropped from 9.4% in 1985 to 1.8% (US$ 0.8 billion) in 1993. Over the same period, investment increased from 30 to 56 % for the Eastern Asia and Pacific region.

Although precise figures are unavailable, it is likely that the fishery sector is not exempt from this general trend. It is assumed that domestic and foreign private investment in the sector has followed a similar downward trend as observed from Official Development Assistance (ODA, i.e. net disbursements in loans and grants from public sources). In percentage of the overall ODA received by African countries, fishery external assistance declined from 1.4% in 1985 to 0.4% in 1990; aid for agriculture in general fell from 11.8% in the late 1980s to 7.5% in 1993.

Annual external aid for the sector reached a high point of US$ 230 million in 1987, but then dropped off steadily to a level of US$ 147 million in 1994. This significant decrease in funding extended to the level of donor activity in terms of number of projects: an average of 114 ongoing projects were implemented per year from 1985 to 1989, compared with an average of 87 in the period 1990-1994. Most projects in the early 1980s were funded by the major multilateral donor agencies (including development banks), the majority (over 67% from 1990 to 1994) are now financed through bilateral sources. Overall, the share of capital assistance remains more important than technical assistance, although the latter has tended to increase markedly (33.2% in 85-89; 42.7% in 90-94). During the period 1989-1994, external assistance was distributed, in percentage, as follows:

Institutional support (including sector/feasibility study) 22.3

Fishery inputs 20.5

Processing and Marketing 14.0

Aquaculture 11.0

Infrastructure construction 9.0

Research (including Survey/exploratory fishing) 8.2

Training/extension 6.6

Environment Protection 0.1

Others (including multicomponent and general

credit lines) 8.3

Limited project support to fisheries reflects not only a general decline in donor interest for Africa, but also a concentration of bilateral assistance on major sectors or topics (e.g., environment). As a result, smaller sectors like fisheries do not receive the support they deserve.

Although, it is difficult to predict how ODA will evolve, the large demand for public assistance elsewhere in the world (e.g., in eastern Europe) indicate that ODA for regional fisheries may drop further in the near future.

SECTION C. INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK

1. MACRO-ECONOMICS AND FISHERIES SECTOR PLANNING

Over the last ten years, many countries have tried to develop coherent medium-term sectoral policies and plans, as well as more appropriate fisheries legislation. During the eighties, these frameworks guided fisheries interventions to a certain extent, but far too often, actual policies and practices remained driven by short-term political considerations and undue emphasis was laid on direct interventions. It appears, however, that major policy changes are now taking place with respect to sectoral priorities, policy instruments, and institutional aspects.

In practice, and especially in terms of expenditure, past policies often focused on developing industrial fisheries. Many countries have indeed attempted, without much success, to develop an industrial sector against a largely unfavourable background (very high technological gaps, lack of skilled manpower and specialised entrepreneurs), and indirectly to the detriment of the small-scale sector (infringement on the coastal zone). Current policies emphasise the small-scale sector much more, not only because of its increasingly recognised role in food supply and employment, but also because of its greater links to export markets.

Macro-economic changes have also greatly influenced policy orientation. To various extents, sub-Saharan countries have recently undertaken structural reforms aimed at i) opening their economy through the reduction of trade barriers and various administrative and regulatory obstacles; ii) reforming their financial and credit systems; iii) making their labour markets more flexible; and iv) rationalising administrative structures and privatising state-owned economic ventures. The impact of such changes has been felt in the fisheries sector, resulting in a consolidation process applied essentially to existing production capacity. It is likely that new investment will follow once this process is completed.

For many countries, difficulties still stem from the way sectoral policy is formulated. A recent audit sponsored by the EU on conflicting policy in sub-Saharan fisheries found that most governments (and international agencies) do not deal adequately with the social, economic and environmental needs of the sector, and that industry is not actively involved in formulating and implementing policy. As a major consequence, proper fisheries management frameworks are an urgent priority in most countries. Regional cooperation is similarly too much limited to research and the exchange of information. The lack of integration of policies between and within sectors, and between the different levels of government, is another important issue, especially for resolving competing uses of coastal areas.

Many fisheries administrations are starting to take steps to remedy this situation. However, the past emphasis on production (technology) and conservation (biology of the resource base) is still reflected in the structure and skills levels of most fisheries departments. There is thus a need to promote a wider multi-disciplinarity in sectoral research and development, complemented by a greater and more systematic involvement of stockholders in sectoral policy-making.

2. NATIONAL POLICIES FOR CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

So far, fisheries management remains largely limited to technical measures such as closed areas and closed seasons, gear prohibition and restriction (on mesh size in particular), the exclusion of industrial vessels from coastal fishing grounds, and licensing. The last two measures are mostly applied to foreign fishing. Irrespective of their adequacy, these measures are not enforced vigorously enough. Few countries have indeed been able to develop or implement adequate MCS mechanisms. Nevertheless, some more comprehensive management schemes are being developed for some fisheries, such as the shrimp fisheries of Madagascar and Mozambique, and the sardine fishery of Lake Kariba. Some countries, like Namibia, have also recently taken major steps to globally rationalise the exploitation of their EEZs.

The major constraints to proper management of regional fisheries remain the lack of resources of the institutional base (fisheries administration, research, productor organizations, etc.) and the inability to implement appropriate management policies and measures. This situation has been made worse recently by the application of Structural Adjustment Programmes and related drastic cuts in public budgets (including for human resources). Growing awareness of the need for management, and the emergence of new macro-economic policies, might require a full reassessment of resources, objectives and approaches as a prerequisite to enhanced institutional efficiency for sustainable fisheries management.

In marine fisheries, overfishing and fleet overcapacity in both domestic and foreign operations have brought the issue of management to the forefront. Particularly for highly priced demersals, there are only relatively few cases where additional effort will result in substantial increases in catches in the longer term. The exploitation of under-utilised fisheries cannot compensate adequately for the overutilization of other stocks. In many instances, the effective introduction of management measures initially may not translate into substantially higher production but into higher catch rates and economic returns on investment, which are essential for securing the sustainability of both the small-scale and industrial sectors.

A priori, marine industrial fisheries might be easier to manage than small-scale fisheries. There is a clear short-term priority in managing high value fisheries (i.e. demersal, crustacean and cephalopods), not only because of their role in generating much needed foreign exchange, but also because fishing pressure and economic waste are more obvious in these fisheries at present. Namibia offers a recent example of an enhanced institutional support base (particularly the resource management side of it), with immediate economic benefit for the sector and the country as a whole.

Better management is needed also for stocks shared by two or more country. Shared stocks are a cause of concern for almost all coastal countries as well as many countries with important inland fisheries. In this respect, mitigated trends can be observed through the many fisheries bodies responsible for a specific sub-region or through specific arrangements among countries, e.g., the sharing of stocks between Angola, Namibia, and South Africa in the Southeast Atlantic. These countries are all members of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and Namibia coordinates the Sector of Marine Fisheries and Resources. Under a range of trilateral and bilateral agreements, the three countries have succeeded in bringing the exploitation of their shared stocks to levels consistent with their productivity. However, the usual problems of fisheries management still occur, including assessment uncertainties, environmentally-driven variability in stock size, and ongoing pressure to allow increased catches.

For inland fisheries management, the hallmark of African freshwater fisheries potential is annual variability. Systems that fluctuate seasonally and inter-annually in surface area - reservoirs, swamps and river floodplains - account for about 57% of the total water surface area. Biological production in these systems is very susceptible to changes in surface area and to variations in the availability of allochthonous nutrient inputs. Fish populations are generally well-adapted to such changes, but from a food security viewpoint, the low point of fish supplies is likely to coincide with poor conditions for rainfed agricultural crops. Clearly, fisheries with high variability in potential and/or characterised by fluctuating systems are particularly difficult to manage. Management plans have been formulated for very few such fisheries.

3. REGIONAL FISHERIES ORGANIZATIONS AND ARRANGEMENTS

It is now widely recognised that effective conservation and management of international fisheries resources call for action undertaken within the framework of regional and sub-regional institutions. Besides bilateral arrangements such as fisheries agreements, such institutions are either specialised inter-governmental fisheries organizations or regional and sub-regional economic groupings.

In marine fisheries, joint development and management efforts have been traditionally carried out mainly through the FAO fisheries bodies and their subsidiaries: the Fishery Committee for the Eastern Central Atlantic (CECAF), the Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission (IOFC)], the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT), and the now defunct International Commission for the South-East Atlantic Fisheries (ICSEAF). For inland fisheries, up to this year, the FAO Committee for Inland Fisheries in Africa (CIFA) was the only fishery body dealing exclusively with the development and management of fisheries in river, floodplains and international lakes.

Over the last decade or so, the number of fisheries organizations has significantly increased in Sub-Saharan Africa. New marine organizations, the membership of which is open only to riparian states, have been created in western Africa, namely the Regional Fishery Committee for the Gulf of Guinea (COREP) in 1984, the Sub-Regional Fishery Commission (CSRP) in 1985, and the Ministerial Conference on Fisheries Co-operation among African States bordering the Atlantic Ocean in 1989. More recently, similar developments have taken place in eastern Africa, with the establishment of the Western Indian Ocean Tuna Organization (WIOTO, in 1990), the Association Thonière (AT, in 1991), and the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission of FAO (IOTC, in 1996). However, in the Indian Ocean, these new fisheries bodies deal exclusively with tuna and, with the exception of the AT, their geographical coverage goes beyond the African part of the Indian Ocean.

The only new inland fisheries body is the Lake Victoria Fisheries Commission (LVFC), created in 1996.

Major impediments to the work of African fisheries organizations include insufficient budgetary allocation, limited research capacities, unfocused areas of competence (functions generally cover both broadly-defined sectoral development issues and fishery management per se), and initiatives that are limited mostly to an advisory capacity. In many instances, these limitations are reflected by poor attendance at meetings, possibly calling for reforms and the need to focus more on well defined priorities of mutual cooperative interest. Despite these shortcomings, some regional fishery bodies are taking increasingly bold measures in recommending management measures, but still with a limited degree of implementation. In most cases, these organizations could be made more effective by removing duplication and intensifying cooperation with one another.

In Sub-Saharan Africa, there are over 15 intergovernmental regional economic groupings, including watershed or drought organizations which include the promotion of fishery development among their statutory mandates. Although, for most of these organizations, this entails the harmonization of fishery policies, the sector remains in fact a marginal area of interest. This stems from the fact that the membership of those institutions are based in general on linguistic, economic and political affinities which do not necessarily coincide with natural fisheries management areas. Common problems are again related to severe budgetary limitations and geographical overlaps and no proper coordination. Activities of these economic groupings are generally diluted within broader development scopes and only a few of them actually have specialised fishery personnel. Consequently, they often face difficulties in providing an adequate framework for cooperation in fisheries management and development in the wider sense, even on subjects for which they are expected to have a comparative advantage. Unfortunately, initiatives taken in the past by some of these groupings to diminish trade barriers in fisheries products or to promote regional training institutions have met with little success.

In order to equip fishery bodies and economic groupings to deal more effectively with shared stocks and other issues of common interest, it will be necessary to change their structure and mandate fundamentally, with a view to streamlining activities and removing duplication. Some fisheries organizations, including FAO bodies, have recently taken steps to this end. Among economic groupings, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) has efficiently rationalised its mandates and priorities for both marine and inland fisheries by strengthening mechanisms to ensure coordination of activities, advisory services, backstopping and follow-up capacities.

4. NATIONAL FISHERIES ADMINISTRATIONS

The emphasis of fishery administrations in Sub-Saharan Africa varies from country to country, generally in relation to the relative importance of the sector. Most fisheries administrative units are departments of broader ministries (often covering agriculture or natural resources); some are actual ministries, like in Cape Verde, Guinea Conakry, Madagascar, Mauritania or Namibia; and some are simple fisheries services or small sections of broader departments. In general, over the past 15 years, there has been a definite tendency for fishery to be given added emphasis, at least in terms of hierarchical levels of administration. There are more ministries of fisheries now than ever before.

This generally means that specialised fishery administrative entities carry out more normative and policy-oriented functions, which were previously dealt with in a broader context. In relative terms, it also means that specialised entities are expected to have more access to public funds.

Besides this evolution, fishery administrations have been affected by the structural adjustments undertaken in many regional countries, which have given rise to changes in staff, budget allocation, and also in functions. The need to redefine functions is being increasingly perceived, not only because of the impact of structural adjustment on resources, but also because of general changes in policies, e.g., the privatization of state companies and rationalization of public interventions in the sector.

However, many fisheries administrations are still organised according to past priorities (monitoring-conservation and direct - rather than use of economic incitatives in development work). Function-related structural changes would come from an internalization of fisheries management requirements, added emphasis on environmental concerns, and new policies of development assistance. Although some countries are taking steps in this direction in terms of policies, structural changes and staff redeployment are expected to occur over a longer period. External assistance may be required in some instances to facilitate this reorganization, especially regarding retraining.

Some countries are developing appropriate or new coordination mechanisms to address environmental issues, such as integrated coastal zone management and biodiversity. In the case of quality control, changes are also following the new EU requirements that self-control systems be installed at all levels of the fishery industry under the supervision of a specialised national authority. In several countries, the competent authority is either the national bureau of standards or the national veterinary service. In either case, such a service often lacks experience in fisheries and requires training, equipment and supplies to operate as planned. Relevant legislation may need to be updated as well.

5. FISHERIES RESEARCH AND TRAINING

5.1 Research

Fishery research, at least biological research, has been emphasised in many countries for quite some time. Major fishing countries have developed research centres which have basic capabilities to monitor fish stocks. Generally, these centres face various constraints: some linked to inadequate funding, and others linked to too much emphasis on fundamental work, rather than on applied research.

The level of multi-disciplinary activities remains low in most fishery research institutions, with limited work being conducted in social sciences. This applies as well to research institutions or projects working on fishing and fish technology. With respect to fisheries management, research is too often rather disconnected from the concerns of the administration and industry, often reflecting the lack of appropriate institutional linkages between research and end users, as well as inadequate emphasis on applied research and issues of direct and immediate concern to the sector.

Some countries where research capabilities have been developed more recently (e.g., Guinea Conakry and Namibia) have started promoting more multi-disciplinary research and providing for direct institutional involvement of research centres in fisheries management. Also noteworthy is the relatively important effort undertaken in the last few years to strengthen research capacity for inland fisheries (Rift Valley area, Mali). Given the importance of inland fisheries, this is a very positive development. Other interesting developments include the Fisheries Research Initiative (a collaborative ACP-EU effort) and increased used of computers and related tools (e.g., GIS, fisheries simulators).

Given the importance of shared stocks, further appropriate regional collaboration is required. In the past, major regional projects took account of this aspect; however, in recent years, growing emphasis on bilateral funding has meant that this kind of intervention has received very little support. Given related needs for advisory services in research planning and for training and retraining, this is viewed as a severe impediment to further progress in regional fisheries research.

5.2 Training

Africa has considerable training requirements. However, it is difficult to address training needs as, geographically, potential trainees are often too few to justify developing permanent national training capacities. Past efforts to address this issue by setting up regional training centres have generally failed. As a result, training institutions are few and generally limited to major fishing countries. High level training is done in a number of local universities and quite often abroad. Some technical institutes provide specialised training in general fisheries administration or in a number of professional specialities. Generally, the industry relies heavily on on-the-job training and on personnel from countries which have a solid traditional involvement in the sector (e.g., Senegal and Ghana for West Africa).

One way of addressing training needs, when only a limited number of people are concerned, is to develop short-term programmes which can be offered on a sequential basis and in direct relation to demand from end users. Some countries, like Madagascar, are experimenting with such an approach, with direct co-financing from the industry. It could be promoted and facilitated in the context of sub-regional projects, with emphasis on developing sustainable national capacities to organise short-term training programmes in a few technical areas.

Opportunities for overseas training exist, for example, in the context of fishing agreements and bilateral assistance programmes. To use these opportunities better, training needs should be more systematically assessed.

SECTION D. SPECIAL ISSUES

1. USE OF SMALL PELAGIC RESOURCES

Regional marine waters are endowed with very important resources of small pelagics, especially off the western coast, where small pelagics have historically represented a significant proportion of domestic catches (e.g. 75% in Ghana, 71% in Senegal, 72% in Namibia) as well as of foreign catches. The percentages indicated refer to 1992, year for which small pelagics represented over 70 % of the production from domestic and foreign fleets in western Africa (Mauritania to South Africa included).

For western Africa, total production of pelagics fluctuated between 3 and 4 million tonnes over the 1970-1992 period, considered considerably below the global potential of the many stocks that make up this resource: sardine (Sardina pilchardus) in the north, pilchard (Sardinops ocellatus) in the south, sardinella (S. aurita and S. maderensis), Bonga (Ethmalosa fimbriata), horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus, T. trecae) and various species of anchovy and scombridae. The relative stability of total catches mask ample variations in abundance, linked themselves to environmental factors, for example, off the western coast, there is an inverse relationship between the variation of catches in the northern-central (up to Zaire) and in the southern region.

Environmental fluctuations are eventually worsened by excessive fishing pressure. The impact of these fluctuations is particularly important on the economic viability of domestic fleets. As a result, small-scale fishers of major fishing countries, such as Ghana and Senegal have a tendency to expand their activity to neighbouring countries. In other countries, fishers reallocate their effort to other fisheries, often at a great cost. Domestic industrial fleets find it more difficult to access other EEZ, thus suffering periodic ups and downs. To the present time, foreign fleets have been able to reallocate their effort geographically, according to these fluctuations.

In recent years, the situation of these fisheries has been affected greatly by the partial withdrawal of the eastern European fleet. In western Africa, total foreign catches dropped from nearly 2 million t in 1990 to less than 0.9 million t in 1994. Since 1992, foreign catches of small pelagics have decreased even more dramatically, down to below 0.5 million t in 1994. The fishing effort of the former eastern Europe fleet not only decreased significantly in 1993 and 1994 (Figure 14), but these vessels now operate mostly on a private basis, often in the context of relatively opportunistic agreements which may not lead to the development of a strong industrial base. The bottom line is the limited profitability of the large vessels (Atlantic and Super-Atlantic) used in this fishery, their operating costs previously being largely subsidised by eastern European States.

A decline in foreign effort has been compensated to a small extent by greater domestic production. However, the resources remain largely inaccessible to the predominantly small-scale domestic fleets. Reduced total production has affected the supply of small pelagics on major consumer markets in Africa, mainly by reducing supply from "inter-regional" trade, as previous trade linkages have collapsed. For example, fish caught in the region by the USSR was used to supply over 200 000 t of pelagics to various African markets in the late eighties. Now, some importers rely more and more on cheaper imports from Europe (mackerel, herring) and from Latin America.

Besides limited and uncertain financial viability, part of the problem in renewing interest in these fisheries stems from the fact that major producing areas and markets do not coincide. Therefore, producing countries, like Mauritania for example, need to justify the huge investments required strictly on the basis of a particularly competitive export market (and depressed fish meal prices), or to provide licences for foreign exploitation against low access fees. On the other hand, countries that are major importers find it more attractive to benefit from low international prices, whatever the origin. Enhanced economic cooperation at sub-regional level could compensate for this particularly unfavourable context, but past experience, with trade duties for example, has not been encouraging. As the sector adjusts to more realistic pricing of inputs and production, there is a need to carefully monitor and assess the emerging situation at regional level.

2. AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

The review of aquaculture in Sub-Saharan Africa showed that there are still many countries with only incipient or erratic aquaculture production. Apart from the doubtful quality of the data on production, this demonstrates that only a few countries have actually given due emphasis to aquaculture. Too often, erratic production figures generally reflect the immediate impact of limited development efforts. Aquacultural development requires more rigorous programming, stronger institutions, and more sustained promotional efforts.

The possibility to transfer appropriate aquaculture packages is greatly influenced by water availability in particular, as well as by climatic variations. In recent years, attempts have been made with the assistance of the international community to utilise the potential of small water bodies in sub-arid and arid areas (Burkina Faso and SADC countries as examples). These initiatives hold good potential for the future in view of the water surface available in these areas, although further efforts are still required to consolidate the packages and to disseminate this approach. As water conservation schemes in rural areas become more frequent, aquaculture should expand as an associated practice.

Aquaculture extension has tended to be specialised and not integrated with agricultural extension, hampering the capacity to divulge aquaculture packages. Being a new sector with little economic weight , public funds for aquaculture extension services have been scarce. It is essential to upgrade the professional preparation of staff involved in aquaculture extension and its organization, as well as staff involved in running the public and seed production centres. This is further complicated by the lack of adequate facilities/institutions for aquaculture training.

Another important issue is the heavy reliance on external assistance for aquaculture development projects, even for aquaculture research projects. Project achievements have generally been short-lived and unsustainable for several reasons, including insufficient project duration, the very weak institutional context in which these projects are implemented, the changing priorities of donors and governments, and limited follow-up capabilities.

In most countries under consideration, formal credit is not generally available for aquaculture development. Rural farmers have very limited capital for investment in new practices which many of them could also consider risky. Although formal credit would probably be used mostly by farmers who understand credit schemes, capital is also necessary for building and operating aquaculture facilities as well as for establishing support services for aquaculture development.

Until recently, aquaculture development projects in Africa have seldom taken into account small entrepreneurs, who may undertake a more commercial form of aquaculture to supply urban or local markets. These entrepreneurs have often been ignored in externally assisted development projects which predominantly targeted the rural poor or subsistence farmers. However, the growing urban populations in Africa also need protein supplies and the private sector in peri-urban areas can be more easily mobilised to supply these markets through aquaculture (generally benefiting from more readily accessible inputs and attractive prices). Interestingly, in recent years, more progress in aquaculture has been made in those countries where entrepreneurs and progressive farmers have been systematically involved.

An associated issue is the supporting infrastructures required for aquaculture development. Although public sector infrastructure exists for seed production and demonstration (a recent review made in 13 major aquaculture producing countries of the Region pointed out the existence of more than 200 stations), these are either very old or inadequate for seed production. Aquacultural expansion is hampered by the distances involved in transporting seed to the scattered aquafarmers, and the lack of vehicles and funds to distribute seed. In at least two of the most successful countries, Madagascar in particular, the privatization of seed production has been a major breakthrough in expanding production. This implies a need to rethink past strategies regarding seed production and to redefine the role of governmental stations.

Aquaculture is still a new concept in Africa and specialised institutional set-ups are still extremely weak. In this context, external assistance continues to be essential for further development, but it should be more carefully planned and necessarily designed with longer time frames in order to establish strong bases for sustained development. At the rural level, efforts should be pursued to obtain a better integration with the prevailing agricultural practices of small-scale farmers, with due emphasis on more participatory approaches. In general, there is also a definite need to better integrate financial, economic and social considerations in designing and implementing projects and packages. This may lead to considerable emphasis on commercial, but more sustainable, development.

3. DISCARDS AND POST-HARVEST LOSSES

A significant amount of by-catch, particularly from demersal and crustacean fisheries, is rejected at sea by the industrial fleets. Assuming a discards to landings ratio of 3, discarded by-catch in the shrimp fisheries of Sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to be around 250 000 t. Discards in other demersal trawl fisheries (e.g., cephalopods) may be in the order of 0.5 million t.

While by-catches are largely unavoidable, the discard of by-catches can often be reduced without affecting the fundamental financial viability of fishing operations. Part of the problem is indeed that some by-catches could be landed, but that it is both troublesome and unprofitable for the industry to do so. Obliging the industry to land a certain amount of by-catch can be feasible in some context, as introduced recently in Madagascar, but such policies would generally require some kind of public support (infrastructures, financial incentives). Other more cost effective solutions are being tested, such as the demonstration of the profitability of shrimp by-catch collection by artisanal canoes in Madagascar or the successful introduction of by-catch fees in the Namibian demersal fisheries.

Post-harvest losses are also a concern in Sub-Saharan Africa. They are often estimated to be in the range of 10 to 20% of artisanal production (or 0.5 million t/year). Recent investigations show that they are much less than often quoted, maybe around 5% of total artisanal production. However, post-harvest losses remain high in value terms, as the small-scale sector is not yet equipped to prevent rapid deterioration of product quality (freshness, insect infestation, breakage, oxidation, etc.). Hence there are recurrent financial losses to processors and traders, even if lesser quality fish is still consumed by the poorest sections of the population.

4. MANAGEMENT OF EXCESS FISHING CAPACITY

With some exceptions, few countries have taken steps to manage fishing capacity on a systematic basis. Major constraints are the multi-species nature of most regional fisheries; the sharing of numerous stocks between the small-scale and industrial sectors, as well as between two or more countries; the importance of foreign fishing and the related problem of monitoring these activities (especially when vessels do not land locally); and the lack of political awareness of the importance of proper management.

As an increasing number of demersal stocks are now fully or over-exploited, the management of fishing capacity is becoming an issue of some urgency, and a major challenge. Besides creating economic waste and reducing financial viability, excess fishing capacity represents major pressure on stocks; this is the case even when other management measures are implemented such as spatial, seasonal and gear restrictions. To avoid over-exploitation, most countries have legal provisions to regulate and eventually limit access to their fisheries. However, few fisheries are de facto operated under closed access regimes. On the one hand, most countries have found it socially and practically difficult to regulate fishing effort in small-scale fisheries. On the other hand, regulations aimed at containing industrial fishing effort have seldom been effective, largely because implementation, surveillance and enforcement have remained inadequate or too permissive.

Fishery management is a complex, area-specific and adaptive endeavour. Nevertheless, various sub-regional consultations point to the following initial requirements:

• Consultative arrangements to enable all concerned parties to jointly address management issues in an organised manner, thus presuming that sectoral organizations exist or are promoted.

• Legally binding requirements to periodically draft a comprehensive management framework and more specific management plans for key fisheries, based on the above approach.

• The empowerment of users with some level of responsibilities in the design and implementation of management measures, especially in the small-scale sector.

• The development of more adequate and cost-effective data collection and information systems, with due emphasis on the multi-disciplinary requirements of management.

• Enhanced applied research on management tools (e.g., simpler indicators, incentives measures, MCS requirements of alternative regulations) and on inland water ecosystems.

• Strengthened and more effective regional cooperation in applied research, monitoring and management, including coverage of the increasingly regional dimension of small-scale fisheries.

External assistance will be required to address the challenge of responsible fishing in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is especially important that increased support be provided at the regional level, preferably through more adequate and streamlined regional mechanisms, even if funding of such mechanisms by the riparian states themselves is expected to remain a difficult issue.

5. EXPORT OF FISHERY PRODUCTS AND TRADE LIBERALIZATION

For more than ten years, there have been definite world-wide trends toward macro-economic liberalization of trade, stabilization in price and reduction of policy distortions, all aimed at bringing national economies in line with international market standards. Such liberalization contributes to broadening the role of market forces and reducing the role of the state with regard to the export market. It is largely embodied in the conclusion of the GATT Uruguay Round and the principles, rights and obligations established in the 1994 World Trade Organization Agreement. As a consequence, international markets, including that of fish and fishery products, are expected to be more and more competitive both in terms of price and quality.

Fish exports are a paramount indicator for regional economies. In 1994, exports of fish and fishery products from Sub-Saharan Africa exceeded US$ 1.1 billion, equivalent to nearly half the gross value of landings at ex-vessel price. The main components of fishery exports are crustaceans and molluscs, high quality demersal species and tuna, which are currently among the most affected commodities by the globalization of fish trade and increasingly competitive transactions. Demand and prices are marginally influenced by local circumstances and depend more and more on the conditions imposed by international markets.

For the time being, all regional states benefit from the access conditions to the European Union market according to the trade provisions of the Lomé Convention (the agreement between the EU and 69 countries in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific -the ACP countries-). Under this agreement, fishery exports from ACP-countries can enter the EU tariff-free. Fish exports from Sub-Saharan African countries depend considerably on the EU market. Preferential access conditions and therefore competitiveness of African products may be affected in the medium/long run by trade liberalization.

It is in a context of general policy reorientations that African exporters have to adapt to these new trends. Until recently, African governments often played a key role in controlling export channels, either by operating themselves directly or indirectly through subsidies or taxes and the distribution of export licences. In the vast majority of cases, exports of fish are now in private hands with an increasing involvement from international partners or companies. Overall, the African exporters are still part of a fragmented industry, both geographically and in terms of volume. They lack interconnections such as those provided by producer organizations to benefit from economies of scale and market opportunities. Hence, market information (list prices; quality standards; demand for diversified destination or products, etc.) remains scarce and mainly accessible by a few big companies. Exporters also have to adapt to the new and more stringent rules concerning safety and quality standards [such as the implementation of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system for EU, USA and other markets] which could have, in the short-medium term, a non-negligible impact on the volume of products exported.

Overall, current institutional changes and the required evolution of organization modes need to be seriously monitored to ensure that better export conditions are promoted to maintain competitiveness and enhance product quality. At regional level, such an initiative could be efficiently supported by INFOPECHE, as provided for in its mandate, assuming a greater mobilization of member states to fully utilise this specialised African inter-governmental organization.

SECTION E. OUTLOOK

1. PRODUCTION AND FISH CONSUMPTION IN 2010

United Nations' projections for population growth indicate that the region will have 700 million inhabitants by the year 2000 and 915 million by the year 2010. Assuming that current per caput supply can be maintained, apparent total fish food consumption would reach a minimum of about 4.7 million t in 2000 and 6.2 million t in 2010. Compared to current supplies of about 4 million t in 1994 (Figure 11), this represents gaps in the range of 0.7 million and 2.2 million t for 2000 and 2010, respectively.

Resources exist to meet, at current per caput supply level, theoretical demand at least by the year 2000, but not necessarily by the year 2010. This is based on the global production figure of over 5.5 million t achieved in 1990 (discards and subsistence fisheries excluded but foreign catches included), and the further assumption that production could be slightly increased (the overall potential of capture fisheries being conservatively estimated above 7 million t). Furthermore, by maintaining its present growth rate, aquaculture production could contribute about another 280 000 t by the year 2010.

If many countries of the region adopt policies to increase per caput consumption to 8.5 kg/capita (its average level in the eighties), supply would need to expand significantly up to 6 million t by the year 2000, and to 7.8 million t by 2010. This scenario is unlikely to happen without relying on massive imports. After the year 2010, expected changes in population growth may significantly modify demand trends.

Tentatively, prospects are assessed in Table 5 in relation to present trends in key components of supply and their likely evolution in future years, under the scenario where per caput supply remains at its present low level of 6.8 kg.

Hence, based on the current consumption figure of about 4.6 million t and on past trends, stabilising per caput fish supply may be difficult to achieve without almost doubling imports, even in the hypothesis of significant increases in national production, particularly of pelagic species.

Part of the difficulty in raising national production follows from the fact that many coastal stocks have already reached a state of full exploitation. It is also related to whether, or not, coastal countries will find it feasible (and economically desirable) to reduce the role of the foreign fleet operating in the industrial sector. The present trend of slowly increasing national production is nevertheless expected to continue if more adequate development and fishery management schemes are implemented. Areas where potential gains in production could be achieved are discussed by sub-sector in the next section. However, it is unlikely that gains in domestic production exceed the level indicated in Table 5.

The situation of future fish supply may be a cause for concern, especially if one considers the fundamental role that fish plays in the region with respect to animal protein intake. However the prospects of the sector have to be addressed not only in production terms, but also in financial and economic terms. Given the present context of sectoral development, foreign fleets are bringing in significant net revenue in foreign exchange (at least US$ 300 million from fisheries agreements alone, or the equivalent of one million t of frozen imports of small pelagics). Furthermore, Sub-Saharan Africa is, in value terms, a net exporter of fishery products. Given the definite emphasis which is now put on exports, the balance of trade may remain positive even if imports progressively double in volume.

Globally, the economic contribution of the sector is largely positive. Over the last decade, significant progress has occurred in terms of artisanal fisheries development, the consolidation of a small industrial base, growing export receipts, and more recently, the emergence of more promising developments in aquaculture. Even if the positive trade balance is decreasing in future years, the economic contribution of the sector will remain largely positive if the present effort of consolidation (often the result of economic liberalization) is extended to fishery management.

2. PROSPECTS FOR INCREASED DOMESTIC PRODUCTION BY

SUB-SECTORS

In reference to limited resource availability, it is likely that domestic production will continue to grow at a relatively low pace, with limited gains being achieved from various sub-sectors. Relatively strong demand should globally result in increased fish prices: a tendency which could support efforts to develop national production.

Marine capture fisheries now represent the major component of domestic fish production. The main potential for immediate increases of catches and supply for local markets lies with low value small pelagic species. Almost 70% of these stocks are harvested by Ghana, Senegal and Namibia and by some specialized foreign vessels. However, the utilization of this potential would require both the substitution on sustainable economic basis of the fleet from the Eastern European countries which were harvesting those resources in the recent past and substantial improvements in cost-effective handling, storage and distribution systems.

Overall, demersal fisheries do not offer any substantial potential for further development and their contribution to local fish food security is likely to further diminish. However, the implementation of more efficient management regimes for those fisheries could contribute significantly to increasing economic performances and in some instances catches.

The sustained growth of the artisanal sector has been a very positive development over the last two decades. Its contribution to value added and to food supply has been essential. Raising concern about the state of the stocks, which are often shared with the industrial sector and neighbouring countries, requires that the issue of sustainability be addressed globally. This constitute a major challenge requiring clear political will at national level and strengthened sub-regional institutions. Prospects on this issue are difficult to assess.

The relocalization of the foreign fleet is expected to continue, especially in countries which have succeeded in establishing a solid local industrial base. However, in many countries, the potential gains from such relocalization can be quite limited if compared with the investments required, and should be assessed in relation to the degree of actual national involvement. Over the last two decades, coastal countries have succeeded in significantly raising direct revenues from fishing agreements. This trend is expected to level off as a significant portion of the rent is now extracted. Further benefits can be expected from a more efficient management of foreign fishing, and increased secondary benefits linked for example to servicing and trading. Generally speaking, actual relocalization (i.e. not measured only in terms of reflagging) will depend greatly on the evolution of the economic and financial environment in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Additional small gains may be expected from reducing discards and improving post harvest handling practices.

Inland fisheries feature importantly in food security, providing over 40% of domestic fish supply. However, recent production levels from large aquatic systems (about 1.8 million t) are close to the estimated sustainable yield. In general, because the demersal/inshore stocks of the large lakes are already subject to heavy fishing pressure, only the relatively lightly exploited pelagic offshore stocks such as those of Lake Tanganyika could support a higher level of off-take. Additional catches could be extracted from the large floodplains.

In general, better utilization of fishery resources of smaller water bodies through enhancement and more effective management of larger river systems could lead to increased output. Translating inland fisheries potential into additional supply for local markets is a long-term undertaking. It would require important investments, notably the provision of basic storage and marketing infrastructures, feeder roads, etc., as well as a greater commitment to improving technical and administrative capabilities at national levels.

Aquaculture's contribution to fish supplies (only 0,7%) and food security is still modest although considerable potential exists in terms of land and water across the Region. It is estimated that less than 5% of this potential has been utilised. Six countries account for 90% of total production (32 700 t). Expected difficulties in ensuring adequate fish supplies should favour aquaculture on a number of local markets, as prices of fish will increase. In addition to the possibility of expanding pond culture of fish in more arid areas of the sub-Sahel and southern Africa, extensive forms of fish culture can be developed in the small water storage reservoirs through stocking, fertilization and feeding. The modernization of agriculture could provided added opportunities for such development. It is also expected that aquaculture development will be increasingly oriented towards the export market, especially in the case of shrimps.

Although the development of aquaculture is technically feasible, it is still hampered by a number of economic, social and institutional constraints which will have to be systematically assessed. The concern expressed with regards to food security in the Region indicates that renewed emphasis should be put on aquaculture development by regional countries. Major and coordinated support from donors will be required to establish sounder bases for such development over the next 15 years.

Limited development of intra-regional fish trade stems from high transport and stocking costs, poor status of handling practices, limited distribution networks and a lack of harmonization and/or proper enforcement of fish trade regulations. Furthermore, the Region is characterised by small national markets (22 countries have less than 5 million inhabitants). This situation will tend to discourage investing at an industrial scale and promoting technological improvements through more research and development. However, increasing emphasis on trade liberalization at national and sub-regional levels may result in greater intra-regional trade in the future, creating added opportunities for developing domestic production, especially for small pelagics. This will require lowering tariff barriers and other restrictions on imports (e.g. quotas), particularly within geographical limits of sub-regional economic groupings.

In conclusion, a major goal for the fisheries sector will be to maintain current per caput supply. In order to increase fish production, governments in the Region are likely to emphasise the strengthening of capacities to manage capture fisheries on a sustainable basis, and the elaboration of more appropriate frameworks for the development of aquaculture.

The sustainable development of domestic production would require that particular emphasis be given to the following :

• Integration of fishculture with agriculture: using family level technologies applied in schemes which contemplate water storage practices, including micro-irrigation and small ponds; encouraging aquaculture in irrigation networks and integrated rice-cum-fish culture.
  
• Fisheries enhancement in small and medium-size water bodies: focusing on reservoirs and eventually on medium size lakes and river floodplains; relying on diversified fishing techniques (such as fish attracting devices); using local species; promoting stocking techniques to enhance natural replenishment, and the development of cage culture.
  
• The promotion of an economic environment conducive to greater insertion of the small-scale fisheries sector within the formal economy and leading to increased linkages and a better sharing of the available resources with the industrial sector. Necessary steps in this direction include the promotion of producer and processor organizations; the availability of affordable institutional credit; adjustments of taxes, levies, and unnecessary regulations; and added emphasis on providing adequate infrastructure and services.
  
• The strengthening of fisheries management systems and their effective implementation, through enhanced applied research, institutional involvement of research and industry in decision making, more focused monitoring systems, the development of more comprehensive and more effective mechanisms to regulate fishing capacity with due emphasis given to protecting the small-scale sector, and through participatory management schemes.