4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND INDICATORS

The POPDEV framework presented in the preceding chapter shows that population changes affect practically all components of social and economic life, from a macro perspective down to the community level and ultimately the family and individual units. The system of interactions in the POPDEV framework provides the context for examining changes in socio-economic and demographic characteristics and variables.

This chapter focuses on identifying and monitoring socio-economic and demographic characteristics of fishing communities within the framework of coastal resource planning and management. In recognition of the different levels of planning that the target users of these guidelines will be involved in, this chapter, like the preceding chapter, begins with a macro perspective before narrowing down to a discussion at the micro/project level.

4.1 Coastal resource management planning process

Coastal resource management (CRM) is the process of planning, implementing and monitoring the sustainable use of coastal resources through community participation, collective action and sound decision making.^[6] As in any development planning process, it covers the four processes of plan formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

Specifically, CRM consists of the following cyclical steps: (a) develop the coastal area profile; (b) compile the information database for project indicators and planning; (c) prepare the management plan; (d) implement action plans, projects and enforcement; and (e) monitor and evaluate.

Steps (a), (b) and (c) comprise the plan formulation stage where baseline information is gathered to provide the basis for developing the management plan and to provide indicators for monitoring purposes.

A coastal area profile presents a variety of information required for effective decision-making and planning, including environmental and socio-economic information and the analysis of problems and opportunities for sustainable coastal development.^[7] The construction of a coastal area profile usually starts with the collection of secondary information and proceeds, if needed, with the gathering of primary data to fill gaps.^[8] An information database with the following elements is then established:

• environmental assessment - involves the identification and classification of habitats and resources found in the coastal area;

• socio-economic/demographic/cultural assessment - involves the gathering of information on demographic and other socioeconomic and cultural factors;

• governance - involves understanding the institutional (both formal and non-formal, political and administrative) arrangements prevailing in the coastal area; and

• resource use - involves consideration of the coastal area’s existing resource base.^[9]

For purposes of these guidelines, the focus is on the socio-economic/demographic/cultural assessment element.

Monitoring the effectiveness of CRM plans requires the identification of indicators. Indicators are data or statistics that describe a person, a place or an event and the changes in them. They track the progress of activities towards the achievement of objectives, and are therefore important in guiding management decisions. Based on their use in the planning process, indicators can be categorized as process (input) or outcome (output) indicators, and as effect or impact indicators. Process or input indicators describe the past, present and expected future situation or condition of a locality and its people, and provide a benchmark for assessing how well objectives have been achieved. Outcome or output indicators measure the extent to which the needs or wants of target beneficiaries have been satisfied as a result of project interventions. Indicators can measure either short-run changes (effect indicators) or long-run changes (impact indicators).

The nature of CRM objectives and the resources available (i.e. budget and human resources availability), determine the type of indicators most appropriate to measure progress. Indicators must be relevant, simple, measurable, timely and cost-effective. Ultimately, the choice of indicators would depend on their availability and accessibility. Data from secondary sources may not be disaggregated at the level required and may be of limited value at the project level. Primary data collection may need to be conducted to cover the relevant information gaps.

4.2 Data needs and information requirements

Indicators can also be categorized according to the type of information they provide. Demographic indicators provide information on demographic processes and their outcomes. Socio-economic indicators track economic progress and social change, and generally portray a people’s state of well-being and quality of life. Indicators may be expressed as a proportion in relation to a given characteristic, rate of incidence, rate of change, mean, mode, median, percentage distribution or frequency distribution.

Through its UNFPA-funded project titled POPDEV Planning at the Local Level, the POPCOM commissioned the Statistical Research and Training Center to come up with a list of core indicators applying the framework presented in Figures 1-4 for population and development planning at the local level^[10]. The various indicator systems prepared by different national and sectoral groups were reviewed and integrated to produce (from a comprehensive list of 1 500 indicators) a recommended list of 109 core indicators.^[11] The POPDEV core indicators presented in Annex 1 cover both processes and outcomes. The use of the indicator system is primarily recommendatory, and the extent of its adoption would ultimately depend on the respective LGUs.

For purposes of monitoring socio-economic and demographic change in fishing communities, a number of core indicators has been selected from the recommended list. These are presented in Table 2 and serve as a ‘shopping list’ of available secondary data from which planners can choose, depending on their requirements and circumstances. This ‘shopping list’ is consistent with what is being promoted and institutionalised at the LGU level. To the extent possible, the indicators have been disaggregated by gender.

To provide uniformity and a standardized understanding of concepts and measures that are officially in use in government documents, Table 3 offers a definition, formula or interpretation for each core indicator. Table 3 also shows the data elements required, the agency/data source, the frequency of collection of the statistics and the lowest area domain for each indicator.

The core indicators presented in Table 3 are generic and can be used to monitor socioeconomic and demographic changes in any particular area. The availability of these core indicators at the provincial level, however, limits their usefulness at the community level. To obtain the information required for community-based coastal resource planning and management, data gathering at the community, household and individual levels may have to be carried out.

4.3 Data collection

Once data needs have been identified, the process of data collection begins. Different methodologies may be used for primary data collection at the micro level, depending on the availability of resources. Survey methods such as censuses and sample surveys provide the most reliable information but require large amounts of time, money and human resources. Rapid participatory appraisal approaches require less resources and provide data which can be adequate for a particular planning purpose.^[12] One such methodology is the focus group discussion where respondents are convened to gather qualitative data, thus covering a representative sample given limited resources.

The FAO micro-level study conducted a participant appraisal research involving: (1) key informant interviews which obtained information on the socio-economic profile of the village, including its physical and institutional infrastructures and natural setting; and (2) focus group discussions which gathered information on perceptions, attitudes and practices regarding a range of topics such as socio-economic status, coastal environment, occupation, reproductive intentions and behaviour and decision-making.^[13]

Results of this participatory appraisal research served as inputs in the design of the questionnaire for the household sample survey.

At the household and individual levels, sample household surveys are the most appropriate method of obtaining information not available from secondary data sources. Depending on the type of information required, the sample may be selected randomly from the total population without any prior knowledge of particular characteristics, or through stratified random sampling whereby the population is first divided into categories on the basis of some predetermined characteristic(s) and a random sample is then taken from each category. In both cases, the sample size must be large enough to provide data that is statistically representative of the population. While the minimum sample size varies according to the size of the population and the type of sample, it should not normally be less than about 10 percent of the population^[14].

TABLE 2
Selected process and outcome indicators for monitoring demographic and socio-economic characteristics

Source: Extracted from Core indicators for POPDEV planning at the local level (Statistical Research and Training Centre, 1998)

TABLE 3
Definition, data elements and availability of selected core indicators

Source: Extracted from Core indicators for POPDEV planning at the local level (Statistical Research and Training Centre, 1998)

4.4 Household and individual questionnaires

The household survey can make use of two-tiered structured questionnaires - a general questionnaire administered to the household head followed by a more detailed questionnaire for each eligible male and female member in the household. The household questionnaire collects information on the demographic characteristics of the household members and on different aspects of the material living conditions and physical environment of the household. The individual level questionnaire seeks to elicit more qualitative information on work/occupation, migration, occupational and intergenerational mobility, attitudes and behaviour regarding fertility and family planning and on gender roles.

The household and individual level questionnaires, presented as Annex 3 and 4 respectively, have been formulated using inputs from different questionnaires currently in use by government. These questionnaires include: (1) the FAO micro-level study household and individual questionnaires; (2) the NSO Annual Poverty Indicators Survey questionnaire; (3) the NSO Census of Population and Housing (Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics) questionnaire; and (4) the NSO/DOH National Demographic and Health Survey questionnaire. Inputs from the FAO questionnaire were selected on the basis of the significant findings of the micro-level study, particularly in terms of their impact on the population dynamics of fishing communities. Inputs from the various NSO questionnaires provide consistency (and thus comparability of measurements) with local definitions and conventions.

4.4.1 Household schedule

Local definitions employed by the NSO will be used to allow for comparisons with other official documents.^[15]

A. Demographic characteristics

Household

A household is a social unit consisting of a person living alone or a group of persons who: (1) sleep in the same housing unit and (2) have a common arrangement for the preparation and consumption of food. In most cases, a household consists of persons who are related by kinship ties, like parents and their children. In some instances, several generations of familial ties are represented in one household; in other instances, even more distant relatives are members of the household.

Household helpers, boarders and non-relatives are considered members of the household provided they sleep in the same housing unit, have common arrangements for the preparation and consumption of food and do not usually go home to their families at least once a week. A person who shares a housing unit with a household but who cooks his/her meals separately or consumes his/her food elsewhere is not considered a member of the household he/she shares the housing unit with. That person is listed as a separate household.

Head of household

The person responsible for the care and organization of the household is generally considered as the head of the household. He/she usually provides the chief source of income for the household.

In the case of a household consisting of two or more unrelated persons sharing the same cooking facilities and meals, the head is usually the eldest male/female in the group regarded as such by the other members of the household.

Age and date of birth

Data on the age of the population are obtained by asking the month and year of birth, and the age in years of an individual at the time of the household visit.

Marital status

Marital or civil status is recorded for all persons aged 10 years and over. The classifications for marital status are: single, married, widowed, separated/divorced, others and marital status unknown (i.e. a person whose marital status is not known to the respondent or whose marital status is being concealed by the respondent).

Religious affiliation

Religious affiliation refers to a particular system of beliefs, attitudes, emotions and behaviours constituting a person’s relationship with the powers and principalities of the universe.

Mother tongue

Mother tongue refers to the language/dialect a person spoke during early childhood or the language/dialect that person first learned to speak. Data on mother tongue is primarily used to determine the ethnic origin of a person long after assimilation to the other customs of the majority population has taken place.

Language

Language refers to the language or dialect spoken most of the time by members of the household.

B. Education and literacy

Highest educational attainment

Highest educational attainment refers to the highest grade or year completed in school, college or university by persons aged 5 years and over. Post-secondary courses refer to formal education covering non-degree programmes lasting up to three years following after secondary level education. These courses are primarily concerned with developing strong and appropriately trained middle-level human resources. Undergraduate post-secondary students refer to those who have taken a post-secondary course but have not completed the course.

Literacy

Literacy is the ability to read and write a simple message. A person is literate when he/she can both read and write a simple message in any language or dialect. A person who cannot both read and write a simple message is illiterate. Also, a person is considered as illiterate if he/she can only read and write numbers or his own name, or if a person can read but not write.

C. Employment/economic activity

Occupation

Occupation refers to the specific job or work/business that a person was engaged in for most of the time during the last twelve months preceding the interview. Usual activity/occupation (e.g. palay^[16] farmer, carpenter, fisherman, etc.) would be the person’s principal means of earning a living during the last twelve months preceding the interview.

A person is considered a gainful worker or usually working most of the time if he/she worked for at least ten hours a week for six months or longer during the last twelve months preceding the interview. He/she may be working for pay; for profit in his/her own farm, business, private practice of a profession or trade; or without pay on his/her own family farm or business.

D. Health status

Health status tracks the type of illnesses or injuries members of the household incurred during the month preceding the interview. A person is considered to have visited any health facility if he/she consulted or received any medical care from any health facility. Health facilities include government hospitals, private hospitals, private clinics, rural health unit/ health centres, and barangay health stations.

E. Income

Total income refers to the sum of the incomes from all sources of all household members earned during the last twelve months preceding the interview.

F. Housing and household facilities

Housing facilities occupied by a household are among the best indicators of a household’s economic status. In combination with household conveniences, they are often used as proxy measures of household wealth.

Building

A building is defined as any structure built, designed or intended for the enclosure, shelter or protection of any person, animal or property. A building is comprised of one or more rooms and/or other spaces covered by a roof and usually enclosed within external walls, or with common dividing walls with adjacent buildings, which usually extend from the foundation to the roof.

Housing unit

A housing unit is a structurally separate and independent place of abode constructed, converted or arranged for habitation by one or more households. Housing units can be classified in terms of their quality as follows: (1) dwelling units constructed of solid or strong materials; (2) semi-solid or light materials; (3) intermediate type construction; and (4) makeshift construction.

Tenure status

Tenure status of the housing unit measures the family’s security in terms of arrangements made for housing occupancy.

Fuel for lighting

The proportion of households with access to electricity can provide planners with a useful indication of which areas are in need of community lighting services.

Household conveniences

The affluence of a household can be measured in terms of the facilities that are found within its dwelling. The presence/absence of household conveniences gives an indication of whether the lifestyle of the household has modernized due to the presence of electricity and provides leisure statistics. The identification of means of communication through which the population can be easily reached (e.g. radio, television) can be important for public information and education purposes.

G. Water and sanitation

Main source of drinking water

Data on main source of drinking water provides information on the proportion of households with access to potable water supply. Water sources are distinguished as: (1) community water systems, (2) tubed or piped wells, (3) dug wells, (4) springs/lakes/rivers/rain and (5) peddlers. Water sources differ not only in the manner in which water is accessed, but also in the safety of the water that they dispense. Piped sources tend to deliver safer water than unpiped ones, deep wells deliver safer water than shallow dug wells and well water is safer than water coming from lakes and rivers.

Toilet facility

The proportion of households with access to sanitary toilet facilities is an indicator of the health and sanitation status of households. Sanitary toilet facilities are toilet facilities that are water-sealed and connected to public or private sewerage systems, septic tanks or some other type of depository. Considered unsanitary facilities are closed or open dug pits, the use of pails or no toilet facilities at all.

4.4.2 Individual questionnaire

A. Respondent’s background

Demographic characteristics (such as age, religion, highest educational attainment, etc.) of the respondent are elicited.

B. Alternative livelihoods

In the context of coastal resource management, the rationale for promoting alternative livelihoods in fishing communities is to reduce pressure on the fishery resource while it is being allowed to regenerate. This means reducing fisherfolk dependence on fishery resources as a major source of livelihood. The findings of the FAO micro-level study suggested that the number of fisherfolk in an area can be expected to increase or decline depending on whether or not the fisheries are profitable and on whether or not fisherfolk have access to alternative livelihoods for their sustenance. It is thus important to know what other livelihood activities are available in the area to fisherfolk.

C/D. Migration and intergenerational and occupational mobility

Internal migration as a determinant of demographic processes is not very well documented in the Philippines. Such data are hard to come by because internal migratory movements are not controlled and monitored. People can move freely and settle in any part of the Philippines that they wish to live in. The only source of comprehensive internal migration data is the population census that takes place every ten years^[17] and includes questions on the individual’s residence five years prior to the census. These same questions are asked in this questionnaire to elicit migration information.

Migration can alter demographic outcomes such as the age-sex structure and other compositional characteristics of the population. It can also affect levels of resource use. In- and out-migration rates give an indication of the stability and profitability of the fishery. In the absence of migration data, comparing the main occupations of sons with the main occupations of their fathers can provide an indication of intergenerational and occupational mobility.

E. Fertility and family planning

The questions on fertility and family planning are meant to elicit information on women’s fertility behaviour, knowledge and practice of family planning. Access to family planning services means that married women of reproductive age (15-49 years) have knowledge of where to avail of family planning services. Practice of family planning refers to the use of any method of contraception. The practice of family planning for the number and spacing of children is usually associated with a better quality of health and higher rates of survival for both mother and child.

F. Gender considerations

Gender is a point of concern for coastal resource management. Women play an important role in resource management and contribute greatly to the food security of their households. They also participate actively in the economic and political activities in fishing communities. However, given the scarcity of relevant gender-differentiated data, these contributions are not sufficiently taken into account. As women constitute one of the primary stakeholders in any coastal resource management initiative, there must be a deeper understanding of their roles and contributions. In addition to producing sex-segregated data, coastal resource management programmes must examine women’s roles and contributions and consider their active involvement. The gender activity profile provides a tool for assessing gender roles and activities.

4.5 Data processing and maintenance

To formulate the database on core indicators, data collected by the household survey can be processed using an appropriate and user-friendly computer software. A preliminary step in setting up the database would be the fieldtesting and validation of the selected indicators and the survey questionnaires. A workshop involving the various stakeholders should be organized for this purpose. The workshop should result in the final determination of the indicators to be regularly collected and monitored, and the frequency of their collection. It should also identify the agencies responsible for maintaining the database. The indicators need to be validated in terms of their availability, accessibility, use and feasibility of collection.

At the national level, the BFAR can take the lead in maintaining the database as it is already involved in preparing Municipal Coastal Environmental Profiles (MCEPs) through the ADB-funded Survey of Coastal Municipalities in the Philippines project. The core indicators would, in effect, be an enhancement of the socio-economic and demographic component of the MCEP. The persons responsible for the project have indicated a desire and willingness to include and incorporate a socio-economic and demographic dimension in their data collection, provided some funding support is provided. The BFAR is also implementing the National Stock Assessment Program, which generates catch and effort statistics and maintains a nationwide network of fisheries data collectors who can be trained in the collection of socio-economic and demographic information.

At the local level, the planning units of LGUs can include the collection of core indicators as part of their existing and regular planning functions. LGUs are in fact mandated by the Local Government Code to prepare and maintain socioeconomic profiles. In line with their mandate to provide coastal resource management as a basic service to the community, LGUs can be requested to disaggregate the data they collect specifically for the coastal communities.

The FARMCs may not have the capability and resources to maintain a database. However, as its membership is comprised of representatives from the LGUs and the local development councils, there may not be a need for a separate database.

The FARMCs can just link up and coordinate with the planning units of the LGUs. FARMCs, as partners of government in resource management and local governance in fishing communities, must be given priority access to the database.

The UPV may choose to maintain a database for teaching purposes, for its outreach programmes and extension services, as well as to provide the bases for further research on population dynamics of fishing communities.