Chapter VI - FODDER OATS IN PAKISTAN

Muhammad Dost

SUMMARY

The introduction of improved cultivars of oats has changed the status of the oat crop in Pakistan in less than twenty years: from a minor crop limited to a few stations, to one of the most important cool-season fodders. Livestock, mainly stall-fed, are very important in Pakistan’s agricultural economy. Crop residues and fodder form the basis of the ration, with concentrates for commercial stock. Agricultural land is limited, so increased forage availability has to be through increasing yield per unit area. Introduction of the new oat cultivars coincided with expansion of dairying and gave impetus to commercial forage growing in the irrigated tracts. The main winter fodder, berseem, which is still grown on a vast scale, yields well in autumn and in spring, but performs poorly in the coldest weeks of winter. The methodology for introducing, screening, selecting, field testing and extending are described, along with the very necessary seed bulking and distribution. Special attention is given to the great success of oats in the Northern Areas^[2] at altitudes from 1000 to 2300 m, to help overwinter stock that graze alpine pastures in summer.

Background

Pakistan has a chronic fodder shortage, with two pronounced deficit periods. The most serious deficit period is December to January, when the traditional winter fodders of berseem (the major winter fodder; Trifolium alexandrinum), shaftal (Trifolium resupinatum) and lucerne (Medicago sativa) are dormant. The other critical period is May to June, when the summer fodders of maize (Zea mays), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and sorghum- Sudan grass hybrids (Sorghum vulgare var. sudanense) have only just begun growth, but the winter fodders are finished. Until recently, seed of improved fodders, especially multicut oats, has not been available, so there has been a scarcity of fodder in terms of both quantity and quality.

Berseem is a case of astonishingly successful introduction and uptake by the farming community. It was introduced to Sindh from Egypt between eighty and ninety years ago, and within twenty years was the main winter forage throughout lowland Pakistan and the northern irrigated tracts of India, displacing the former winter legumes Trifolium resupinatum and Melilotus indica almost totally.

Oats (Avena sativa L. and Avena byzantina Koch) rank fifth (Dost, 1997) in terms of world production of cereals, and are widely used as a companion crop for undersowing forage legumes. Oats are mainly grown in temperate and cool subtropical environments. In Pakistan, they are an important winter fodder, in both irrigated and rainfed areas.

The green yield of local oat landraces under rainfed conditions is about 20 t ha^-1 (Bhatti, Hussein and Mohamamd, 1992), which is insufficient to provide even maintenance for the number of livestock kept. In winter, dairies have to buy fodder in large quantities from distant, irrigated tracts. In contrast to local landraces, improved oats grow faster, can be cut earlier and provide feed during the cold period. In Balochistan, wheat was a traditional fodder, but, with the introduction of improved oats, use of wheat fodder has fallen. Farmers harvest oats at 50 percent flowering, or later to maximize yield but at the expense of quality (Dost, 1997).

The ideal fodder oat should be high in crude protein and digestibility, and low in crude fibre. Fodder yield and quality is greatly influenced by plant age, crude protein content and in vitro dry matter digestibility, which falls as the forage crop matures; dry matter yield increases with advancing maturity (Dost et al., 1994). Appreciating the importance of oats as a promising fodder, and to palliate the winter feed problem, oat cultivars were obtained from countries thought likely to be the best sources of suitable germplasm.

Farming systems and cropping patterns

In Pakistan, most crop production is in four major farming systems, reflecting local agro-ecological zones, defined by climatic conditions, dependence on irrigation or rainfall, temperatures, soil fertility and land holding size.

Medium to high altitude

This includes the mountain and hill regions, such as the northern parts of North West Frontier Province (NWFP), the Northern Areas and parts of Balochistan. Although some areas get reasonable rainfall, Gilgit and the Northern Areas are in a rain shadow and have to rely on irrigation from snow or glacier melt. Holdings are very small, and arable areas are limited to scattered, irrigable alluvial fans. Crops are often undersown in orchards. Agriculture is purely subsistence. Livestock includes both cattle and small ruminants. Dry stock and small stock may go on transhumance. These areas are 1000 to 2300 m above the plains, with cold to extremely cold winters. At medium elevations, maize, rice, potatoes, wheat, barley and shaftal are grown; above 2000 m, seed potatoes, wheat, buckwheat, foxtail millet, barley, oats and lucerne are grown.

Medium altitude rainfed tracts

This includes the Pothowar plateau, Rawalpindi-Islamabad, Attok, Chakwal, Jhelum, Mianwali, Dera Ghazi Khan (Punjab), Bannu, Karak, Kohat, parts of Dera Ismail Khan (NWFP), and most of Balochistan. Temperatures are similar to the irrigated areas, but depend on rain. Large ruminants are important, and forage production is very seasonal; there may be some rough grazing. Major crops are mustard, wheat, barley, oats and lentils in winter; maize, sorghum, millet, guar and groundnut in summer. Maize is an important dual-purpose crop in high-rainfall regions, but is replaced by groundnut in drier areas.

Irrigated tracts of the plains

This is a vast area, and includes central and northern Punjab, parts of NWFP, Sindh and Balochistan. The bulk of Pakistan’s agriculture occurs here, with intensive commercial farming over very large areas. Large ruminants, especially dairy buffaloes, are important, and are stall-fed on crop residues and fodder. With warm temperatures and plentiful irrigation, conditions are optimal for luxuriant crop growth for ten months of the year. These areas are subtropical, with searingly hot summers. Wheat, cotton, sugar cane, maize, rice, lucerne, berseem and oats are major crops. These areas meet almost all the grain and forage requirements of urban dairies, including those in rainfed regions.

Coastal areas

These areas - south Sindh and parts of Balochistan - have subtropical conditions. Pearl millet, sorghum, maize, sugar cane, barley and oats are common. Rainfall is scattered and erratic and so irrigation is of extreme importance. The major winter forages are oats, berseem, lucerne, vetch and mustard; summer forage crops are maize, sorghum, sorghum-Sudan grass hybrid, pearl millet, cowpea and guar.

Cropping patterns

Most farmers in rainfed regions grow local landraces of traditional forages. Livestock are fed on dried maize, sorghum or millet stover, and graze wild grass. In winter, green wheat is fed. Poor feed results in poor health and production. In prolonged droughts, even productive animals are sold to get cash for domestic needs. In the rainfed tracts, forage availability is the major criterion in deciding what kind of stock to keep.

Sorghum with maize, and mustard intercropped in wheat, are the major green forages, supplemented by maize thinnings and weeds. Barley and oats are forages generally grown for sale near urban areas, mainly under tubewell irrigation. Several thousand tons of oat forage are transported to urban dairies daily in season and thousands of urban dairies rely on daily purchase of forage. Forage fetches reasonable prices in winter. In dry seasons, peri-urban farms cannot meet the forage requirements of city dairies, so forage is transported from irrigated areas hundreds of kilometres away. In rainfed areas, wheat straw and sorghum, maize or millet stover provide the bulk feed; forages and concentrates are fed to lactating animals.

Livestock rearing has evolved specialized crop management practices - e.g. intercropping of companion crops, maize thinning and fallowing of land - to help to feed animals. There are three very different fodder situations.

• In rainfed areas, agriculture is for subsistence and crops depend on rainfall. Forage requirements are partly met through forage crops and partly by grazing fallows.

• In the irrigated tracts, peri-urban forage production is commercial.

• In the high mountains, forage production and stock rearing are for subsistence and feed needs are partly met through forage from very small holdings, where irrigation is available, and partly through using alpine grazing to the maximum extent.

On the plains, there are two very different types of stock rearing: subsistence and commercial; the latter is in peri-urban "milk shed" areas or even in towns. Some farmers grow for their own stock (again subdivided into subsistence and com mercial), while others (who may have no livestock) grow fodder as a cash crop.

Commercial forage farmers cultivate very intensively and usually grow four crops per year on the same piece of land. Commercial dairies are mostly found around big cities such as Karachi, Hyderabad, Lahore, Sheikhupura, Gujrat, Gujranwala, Rawalpindi-Islamabad, Faisalabad, Peshawar, Charsada, Nowshera, Quetta and Mirpur AJK^[3]. Feed for animals is transported by road - lorries over long distances or camel, bullock or donkey carts for forage produced locally. Some forage is transported over 300-400 km, such as from Hyderabad, Sukkar and Nawab Shah to Karachi; from Kasur, Sheikhupura, Gujranwala, Faisalabad and Renala Khurd to Mirpur (AJK) and Rawalpindi-Islamabad; and from Nowshera, Charsada, Mardan and Malakand to Peshawar. Cities in irrigated regions have forage sources quite close by, but Karachi, Islamabad-Rawalpindi and Mirpur buy feed from afar.

Buffaloes predominate in Punjab, NWFP and Sindh, as their milk is preferred and fetches a high price. In Quetta, less than half of the urban herd is buffalo, due to lack of irrigation and consequent scarcity of green and dry forage. Afghan refugees brought pure and grade Friesian cattle to Quetta (and management skills) and their excellent condition and performance has attracted local dairymen to cattle.

Rising transport costs have encouraged the making of oat hay. Data are not available, but huge quantities of oats are now regularly made into excellent hay, baled and transported over long distances. In the 1950s and 1960s, oats were grown mainly to provide hay for horses, then the main transport animal in rural and urban areas. The rapid rise in the popularity of oats over the last fifteen years is due to the introduction of high-yielding cultivars that provide several cuts, such as cvs Scott, S-81, Tibour, Cascade, Swan and PD2-LV 65. In the late 1980s, the dairy industry began to expand and more and more milk marketing outlets became available. A large number of milk processing units have been installed. The expanding urban population has provided a lucrative milk market and dairy farming is now better managed.

Forage production is an important business, especially near big cities, with a range of crops grown to maintain a yearround supply. Improved, multicut oats are very popular in urban irrigated areas, and have almost replaced poor quality wheat and rice straw as the basis of winter feed; berseem provides very high quality cool-season forage and is marketed in vast quantities, but production peaks in spring and is poor in the coldest months. Improved oats provide forage in cold weather and are replacing the forage brassicas that were formerly used in the winter gap (Suttie, 2000a).

Forage yields are low compared to their potential. Improved cultivars and technology have been slow to reach the small farms that account for the bulk of production, and seed production has lagged behind plant breeding and introduction. Recent on-farm work has indicated that yields could be raised by two to three times using available cultivars and technology. Where land and irrigation are the major limiting factors to increasing fodder production, intensification is the only way to meet the country’s needs for forage.

Oat introduction

Fodder oats were introduced during the early British era, but it was only in the 1970s that 400 cultivars were acquired from Australia, Canada, Europe, New Zealand and USA to form the basis of Pakistan’s oat improvement programme. Further importations were made under a World Bank Hill Farming Project for Azad Kashmir in the 1980s. Some of this material still plays an important role across a wide range of ecologies. The National Agricultural Research Centre’s (NARC) Fodder Research Programme also introduced material from Western countries in the mid-1980s.

The Fodder Research Institute, Sargodha, is the main institution handling the basic seed production of improved or promising forages. It has 200 ha of irrigated land for breeding, evaluating, screening, management testing, selecting and recommending forages, especially for the irrigated tracts. It has substations in Faisalabad and Bahawalpur in different eco-climates. As a result of the improved access of the farming communities to seeds of improved forage cultivars around Sargodha and Faisalabad, both cities are now major sources of fodder as a cash crop, which is hauled over great distances throughout Punjab. Forage cultivars released by the Fodder Research Institute and other stations are listed in Table 6.1.

Improved oats have now been used by farmers, usually around big cities for some 20 years; they provide assured feed in early winter if sown at the end of August or early September, to be cut in late November - early December.

Seed multiplication and extension

NARC, Islamabad, is responsible for introducing new varieties of forage crops in Pakistan and evaluates all introduced forage cultivars for forage and grain yield traits. Promising introductions are evaluated and multiplied in different agroecological zones (Figure 6.1). Selected cultivars are further evaluated in national uniform evaluation trials at all appropriate substations. Most substations multiply promising cultivars. NARC, Islamabad, and FRI, Sargodha, have larger areas for bulking seed, which is then sold to small-scale farmers, commercial growers, government agencies, private dairy farms, agencies and organizations interested in fodder production and development. Most seed of improved forage and cereal cultivars is produced by private companies, government centres and to a limited extent, commercial growers. The bulk is purchased for further multiplication, and the surplus sold to private dealers who market it in rural areas. Local seed dealers are the main source of oat seeds for smalland large-scale commercial farmers.

Until recently, small-scale farmers did not know the potential of forage oats and never grew them. Bridging the conceptual gap between improved cultivars and technology and the fodder growing on farmers’ fields was a clear challenge. An FAO-assisted project in the early 1990s organized demonstrations and supported larger-scale multiplication of promising, well-tested forage cultivars. The outputs and findings of this successful project, which gave a great impetus to commercial oat growing, is reported by Bhatti and Khan (1996)

A Productivity Enhancement Project in 1997-98 carried out large-scale, on farm demonstrations and seed multiplication of improved oats throughout the country. Village producers were linked with private seed companies and seed dealers in all cities for sale and purchase of improved oat seed. Companies and dealers became a major means of oat seed bulking. Seed procured by dealers is now regularly traded in rural markets. Most farmers save most of their own seed from an initial supply from merchants.

TABLE 6.1
Forage crop cultivars released by various institutes in Pakistan

Key to institutes: FRI = Fodder Research Institute, Sargodha; CCRI = Cereal Crops Research Institute, Pirsabak, NWFP, which works under the Ayyub Agricultural Research Institute, Pirsabak, NWFP. AARI = Ayyub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad; MMRI = Maize and Millet Research Institute, Sahiwal; RARI = Rainfed Areas Research Institute, Bahawalpur.

Non-governmental organizations working at grassroots level in rural areas over almost 70 percent of the country have been playing a very important role in demonstrating improved forages. Interested communities indicate their needs for seed, rural support programmes arrange procurement from reputable sources, and deliver to the farmers’ homes. Thus seed of improved oats have become accessible to small-scale farmers, even in remote areas. For the past several years, the NARC Fodder Programme and private seed companies have been actively involved in the seed multiplication of improved oats for the FAO Afghan Programme.

Oats as fodder

Forage oats are grown throughout Pakistan and are now the main source of winter and spring forage from the plains - both irrigated and rainfed - to high altitudes (1000-2300 m). Oats account for more than 35 percent of the land under forages in Pakistan. Seed yields vary from 2.4 to 3.2 t ha^-1 in the better environments, but less at higher altitudes (above 2300 m). In the Northern Areas, at 2000-2300 m, the highest recorded green fodder yields were in the range of 80-120 t ha^-1.

Figure 6.1
Fodder yield trial with improved oat cultivars, Pakistan

Oat fodder is important in the plains during autumn, winter and spring, and in the mountains in autumn, spring and early summer. Reported green fodder and dry matter yields are generally higher in parts of NWFP and Balochistan than in the lowlands and mid-hills. In the Northern Areas, oats have proved invaluable for stall-fed dairy cattle around villages and towns.

Temperate and cool subtropical conditions suit oats. A well distributed rainfall of 400 mm and an optimum temperature range of 16-32°C from September to April are sufficient to grow it as a fodder. Oats can provide green fodder after 60-70 days in an emergency to carry stock over the scarcity period, but by 90-100 days after germination, large quantities of fodder is available. Oats are mostly fed green, and any surplus is made into hay. It highly palatable to all stock and the straw is much superior to wheat and barley straw. It is high in total digestible nutrients, digestible crude protein, fat, vitamin B1 and minerals such as phosphorus and iron. Oat grain is particularly valuable for horses, dairy cows, poultry, young and breeding animals.

Oats in the Northern Areas

New oat cultivars introduced to the Northern Areas have proved to be valuable since they grow much earlier and more vigorously than traditional winter cereals. Green oats are cut in Gilgit and Chilas when no other green feed is available. Higher yields (up to three times) are produced in the 1000-2300 m band compared with lower zones, possibly reflecting better agro-ecological adaptation. Many cultivars have been positively evaluated in winter up to alpine areas, around 2300 m. Feeding green oats to cows in winter increased milk yields by from 1 to 4 litres per day. Fodder oats, vetch, lucerne, shaftal and berseem seed are produced for on-farm use, barter and sale to earn extra cash.

Forage quality

Cattle can be maintained in good condition as many cultivars provide good forage if cut at flowering or soon after. Broad-leaved cultivars produce a higher forage yield, but narrow-leaved ones are preferred by horses and cattle. Although 16-19 percent of the total cropped area in Pakistan is planted to fodder, animals are generally underfed. To operate an efficient and economic livestock industry, high yielding, nutritious and multicut fodder oats are needed to feed more animals (Dost, 1997). Hussain et al. (1993) reported that cv. Fatua oats produced more fodder and less crude protein with advancing crop maturity. The crop should be harvested at a stage that provides an optimum compromise between forage yield and quality. Maximum green fodder and dry matter yields and crude protein contents were recorded when oats were harvested at 50 percent flowering. Hussain et al. (1994) also reported that the highest dry matter yields of five oat cultivars were at the 50 percent heading stage.

Dost et al. (1994) concluded that forage yield, dry matter yield and crude fibre increased with advancing maturity, while crude protein declined. Harvest at 50 percent flowering resulted in superior forage and dry matter yields, but inferior nutritive forage value, defined by lower crude protein and higher crude fibre contents, compared with harvesting at the vegetative stage at 70 or 85 days after sowing. Minimum forage and dry matter yields with maximum forage quality came from harvesting at the mid-vegetative stage, 70 to 85 days after sowing. Young cereal plants provide excellent quality herbage, which is highly nutritious for lactating ewes and young growing lambs.

Maturity period

Time from sowing to heading or maturity is a good indicator for the selection of dual-purpose crops. In the high rainfall areas of Punjab, the recommended dualpurpose oat, cv. S-81, was the earliest to mature after heavy defoliation. It was, however, the latest when ungrazed and grown for grain (Dost, 1994). This trait of late maturity in a dual-purpose crop was confirmed by McLeod et al. (1985) when cutting oats at 2 cm. Hadjichristodoulou (1983) and Yau et al. (1987) concluded that dual-purpose lines tended to be late heading, and time to heading or maturity appeared to be the main factor affecting yields, while tiller number, head number and plant height were less important (Yau et al., 1987).

Oat research and development

NARC, Islamabad, evaluated 400 cultivars (1970s introductions) throughout Pakistan and, based on maximum forage yield, dry matter yield and maturity, selected 20 that were then further evaluated in all four provinces in the autumn (rabi) season under a wide variety of conditions, to select and recommend the most suitable for different agro-ecological regions. Year-round fodder production is the most important component in local farming systems and a great deal of research is being carried out in the four provinces of Pakistan as part of a national coordinated fodder research programme. The details are presented below.

Genotype × environment interaction and screening methods

Considerable genotype × environment interaction has been noted across latitude, altitude, seasonal sequence and management regimes; this is poorly documented in Pakistan. Effectiveness of a variety testing programme is influenced by experimental design, number of locations, and the number of years used to average variety means. Information is required as to whether forage oat varieties respond differently when planted under diverse environment interactions, and, if so, how important such genotype × environment interactions might be in an oat variety evaluation and selection programme.

Dost et al. (1993) studied the optimum allocation of resources in varietal evaluation for thirteen oat genotypes for forage yield at four locations for four years, and suggested that, for an efficient forage oat evaluation programme, the three provinces under study should be divided into sub-areas on the basis of variation in rainfall, temperature, soil type and soil fertility in order to minimize genotype × environment interaction (Table 6.2).

TABLE 6.2
Expected variance of a variety mean (Vx) for various assumed numbers of replicates and locations per test

Source: Dost et al., 1993

Oats as a multicut crop

Compared with wheat and barley in Pakistan, oats provide multiple cuts, tiller profusely, yield more and are of higher nutritional value. Standing oats can be cut progressively, releasing land earlier than normal for follow-on crops or relay cropping. Any remaining oats can be dried as hay. This coincides with optimum soil moisture for land cultivation and sowing of the following crop, and also allows small areas or peripheral lines on terraces to be saved for seed. In many, but not all, instances, more recently bred cultivars out-yield older ones (Dost et al., 1994). Although the use of oats as a multicut crop is common in Pakistan, relatively limited research data are available to aid the farmer in the selection of the best forage harvest schedule for the dual utilization of oats to attain high forage yield, seed yield and good forage quality.

Bhatti, Hussain and Mohamamd (1992) evaluated 13 oat cultivars under a two-cut system at Islamabad during 1985-86 and 1986-87 and found that the cultivars PD2-LV 65 and S-81 produced 28.05 percent and 26.24 percent more green forage and 26.30 percent and 21.93 percent more dry matter yield, respectively, in two cuttings compared with the control. Thus oat cultivars PD2-LV 65 and S-81 were found suitable for multicut systems under both irrigated and rainfed conditions.

Oats as an intercrop or companion crop

In order to obtain early and good yields on small holdings in winter, compatible fodder crops may be sown in mixture to produce higher fodder yields and quality per unit area per season (Table 6.3). Low growing leguminous fodders, such as berseem and vetch, can be mixed with oats, ryegrass, brassicas, etc. (Figure 6.2). Oat+vetch (Figure 6.3) and barley+vetch combinations produced on average 110 and 70 t ha^-1 of green material, compared with 100 and 56 t ha^-1 pure oat and barley stands, respectively, in the 1400 to 2000 m altitude band (Table 6.3).

A deep-rooted crop like lucerne can be mixed with shallow rooted ones like oats, rye, barley or a brassica; the annual is usually sown between the rows of perennial fodder. This technology has been demonstrated to the farmers in the Northern Areas. There are many advantages of mixed sowing over pure: more than one crop per season per unit area; weed control is easier; yields are higher than pure-sown crops; and fodder is of better quality. Oats were intercropped in winter-active lucerne and red clover in rows 30 cm apart at several sites. The mixtures of lucerne+oats, red clover+oats and berseem+oats produced greater green and dry matter yields compared with the sole crops of either legume. The results are presented in Table 6.5.

TABLE 6.3
Green and dry matter yields (t ha^-1) of oats, barley and vetch at two sites in 1994-1997

Source: Dost, 1997

TABLE 6.4
Green and dry matter yield (t ha^-1) of oat cultivars at the National Agricultural Research Centre, Islamabad, during 1985 - 87 (average of two years)

Notes: Means followed by the same letters do not differ significantly at the 5% level of probability. (1) Percentage more (+) or less (-) than control.
Source: Bhatti et al., 1992.

Figure 6.2
A mixture of oats, lucerne and brassica

Figure 6.3
Oat and vetch hay mixture in Gilgit, Pakistan

TABLE 6.5
Green and dry matter yields (t ha^-1) of legumes and oats at Gilgit in 1993/94

Source: Dost, 1997.

Oat+berseem mixtures provided earlier and greater fodder yields, and increased milk production by as much as 20 litres per animal per month on average, compared with traditional practices. At the same time, the demand for purchased concentrates was reduced by 20 kg month-1 per animal, and milk production was extended by an extra two months.

Multiple cropping or mixed sowing techniques were tried. The details are presented in Table 6.6. Non-winter-dormant lucernes (Sundar being the main cultivar) have been very successful. They may suffer some frost damage at high altitudes, but grow throughout the year and yield more than twice as much as the landraces in double crop areas below 2000 m. They also provided maximum green feed in the critical December-January period.

Little information was available in Pakistan on forage quality in crops harvested at various stages of maturity, so studies were carried out to determine the ideal stage to obtain a compromise between maximum forage yield and reasonably good forage quality. Hussain et al. (1998) evaluated oats, barley and wheat for forage yield and quality at nine growth stages at Islamabad during 1990-2. Oats harvested at head emergence stage and barley and wheat at full flowering produced maximum green yields. In all three crops, the highest dry matter yield was recorded at early dough stage. The maximum crude protein content was recorded at four-leaf stage repeatedly, whereas minimum protein contents were recorded in the early dough stage. Oats, barley and wheat harvested at boot stage provided a good compromise among green fodder yield, dry matter yield and forage quality. At this stage, a sufficient quantity of fodder with moderate forage quality was obtained (Table 6.7). More recent work on oats has been reported by Hussain et al. (in press).

TABLE 6.6
Effect of mixed sowing on green and dry matter yields (t ha^-1) of lucerne, red clover and oats at three sites in 1996/97

TABLE 6.7
Green and dry matter yield and crude protein contents of oats, barley and wheat under various cutting regimes

Key: (1) CS 1 = Repeated cutting at 4-leaf stage; CS 2 = Repeated cutting at tillering; CS 3 = Repeated cutting at jointing; CS 4 = Repeated cutting at boot stage; CS 5 = Harvesting once at head emergence; CS 6 = Harvesting once at 50% flowering; CS 7 = Harvesting once at 100% flowering; CS 8 = Harvesting once at early milk stage; CS 9 = Harvesting once at early dough stage.
Source: Hussain et al., 1998.

TABLE 6.8
Green and dry matter yields and crude protein of oats and barley as influenced by different cutting regimes

Notes: (1) CS1= Repeated cutting at 4-leaf stage; CS2 = Tillering; CS3 = Jointing; CS4 = Booting stage; CS5 = Harvest once at ear emergence; CS6 = 50% flowering; CS7 = 100% flowering; CS8 = Early milk stage; CS9 = Early dough stage; LSD = Least Significant Difference; P = Probability. (2) Data for one year.
Source: Hussain et al., 1995

Hussain et al. (1995) report on trials in 1990 and 1991 that evaluated yield and quality of fodder at different harvesting stages of oats and barley (Table 6.8). Oats at the boot stage and barley at full flowering produced maximum forage yield (79.45 and 63.10 t ha^-1, respectively). In oat and barley, the highest dry matter yields (15.54 and 13.75 t ha^-1, respectively) were recorded at early dough stage. In both crops, crude protein content decreased with advancing maturity. The maximum crude protein content (14.93 and 14.37 percent in oats and barley, respectively) was observed when the crops were harvested repeatedly at the four-leaf stage, whereas the minimum was at the early dough stage in both crops. Oats and barley harvested at booting proved better for reasonable forage yield (67.32 t ha^-1), dry matter yield (11.66 t ha^-1) and forage quality (crude protein 10.33 percent). At this stage, a sufficient quantity of forage yield with adequate quality was obtained in both crops (Table 6.8).

Dual-purpose oats

Seed production is a major problem for many forage crops, as most of them are harvested and fed to livestock well before seed formation, unless intentionally kept for seed. Development and cultivation of dual-purpose forage varieties could be one means to ensure seed availability. Dost et al. (1994) evaluated oat cv. S-81 under different maturity and harvesting treatments during 1991-92 at Islamabad (Table 6.9). Forage yield, dry matter yield and crude fibre increased, while seed yield and crude protein declined when harvesting the crop with advancing maturity. Maximum forage and dry matter yields with considerably inferior quality forage (as defined by lower crude protein and higher crude fibre values) were observed at 50 percent flowering stage. Minimum forage and dry matter yields with superior quality forage were recorded at 70 and 85 days after sowing. This research also indicated that it is possible to obtain satisfactory forage yield, forage quality and grain yield from oats that have already been cut once for forage at 115 days after sowing.

TABLE 6.9
Average plant height (PH), tillers per plant (TL), leaves per tiller (LV), green fodder yield (GY), dry matter yield (DY), seed yield (SY), crude protein content (CP) and crude fibre (CF) contents of oats cv. S-81 in Islamabad, 1991-92

Notes: Means followed by the same letters do not differ significantly at 1% probability level. (1) CT1 = Cut for fodder 70 days after sowing and then for seed; CT2 = Cut for fodder 85 days after sowing and then for seed; CT3 = Cut for fodder 100 days after sowing and then for seed; CT4 = Cut for fodder 115 days after sowing and then for seed; CT5 = Cut at 50% flowering for fodder only; CT6 = No fodder cut but left for seed only; LSD = Least Significant Difference; P = Probability.
Source: Dost et al., 1994.

TABLE 6.10
Green yield (t ha^-1) of oat cv. Scott under different fertilizer doses and sites in 1999-2000

TABLE 6.11
Green-fodder yield (t ha^-1) and gross income (Rs ha^-1) from five oat cultivars with five treatment regimes, Islamabad, Pakistan, 1987-89

Interaction matrix

Notes: (1) T1 = Cut for fodder 70 days after sowing and then harvested for seed at maturity; T2 = Cut for fodder 85 days after sowing and then harvested for seed at maturity; T3 = Cut for fodder 100 days after sowing and then harvested for seed at maturity; T4 = Cut for fodder 115 days after sowing and then harvested for seed at maturity; T5 = Cut for fodder at 50 percent flowering stage for fodder. LSD = Least Significant Difference. P = Probability.

Effect of cutting or grazing on forage and grain yield

As little information was available on the economics of oat production in Pakistan, a study was undertaken on the economic aspects of oats harvested for fodder and fodder+seed at different harvesting intervals. Generally, farmers cut oats either for fodder or grain, but there is good scope to obtain both fodder and seed from the same crop.

Hussain et al. (1994) evaluated five cultivars of oats for fodder yield, seed yield and gross income at different harvesting intervals during 1987-89 at NARC, Islamabad (Table 6.11). Cvs PD2-LV 65, S-81 and Swan produced maximum forage yield (58.6, 55.0 and 54.6 t ha^-1) and gross income (Rs 14 750, 13 800 and 13 720), respectively, when harvested only for fodder at 50 percent flowering stage. The highest seed yield (2.19 t ha^-1) and gross income (Rs 12 380 ha^-1) were obtained from PD2-LV 65 harvested only for seed (see Table 6.12). Cv. Swan cut for fodder after 70 and 85 days of sowing and then left for seed produced, respectively, 2.04 and 2.07 t ha^-1 seed yield and Rs 11 520 and 11 590 ha^-1 gross income. The maximum cash incomes from fodder+seed were obtained from cv. Swan harvested for fodder after 85 and 100 days (Rs 18 600 and 18 980 ha^-1) and cv. PD2-LV 65 harvested 115 days after sowing (Rs 18 380 ha^-1). It was therefore concluded that it was more economic to cut oats for fodder at 85-115 days after sowing and then leave the regrowth for seed at maturity (Table 6.12).

TABLE 6.12
Seed yield (t ha^-1), gross income (Rs ha^-1) from seed and gross income (Rs ha^-1) from fodder+seed (F+S) from five oat cultivars with different treatments, Islamabad, 1987-89

Interaction matrix

Notes: (1) T1 = Cut for fodder 70 days after sowing and then harvested for seed at maturity; T2 = Cut for fodder 85 days after sowing and then harvested for seed at maturity; T3 = Cut for fodder 100 days after sowing and then harvested for seed at maturity; T4 = Cut for fodder 115 days after sowing and then harvested for seed at maturity; T5 = Cut for fodder at 50 percent flowering stage for fodder. LSD = Least Significant Difference. P = Probability.
Source: Hussain et al., 1994.

Forage and hay yield

Evaluation and selection of oat cultivars with high fodder yield, good fodder quality and disease resistance is an important factor in meeting the fodder requirements of livestock. Trials evaluating and selecting multicut, and high-fodder-yield cultivars were carried out on farmers’ fields in the Northern Areas during 1996-97. The results are presented in Table 6.13.

Hussain et al. (1993) evaluated 15 oat cultivars for forage yield, dry matter yield, crude protein and crude fibre contents at NARC, Islamabad, in 1985-86 (Table 6.14). Cultivar No. 725 produced taller plants, more tillers per plant, more leaves per unit leaf area, the highest forage yield, dry matter, and superior forage quality.

National uniform oat forage yield trials

Twenty promising cultivars were evaluated across a range of altitudes and ecologies during the 1980 and 1990s, from sea level to above 2 000 m through a series of on-farm, farmer-managed and research station trials, plots and socio-economic surveys. Representative examples of data generated from trials in dairy pockets are given below (data obtained from the NARC report on the National Uniform Fodder Yield Trials 1989-2000). The performance of the cultivars is given in Tables 6.15 to 6.18.

TABLE 6.13
Dry matter yields (t ha^-1) of five oat cultivars and barley in 1996-97 at four sites in the Northern Areas, Pakistan

Source: Dost, 1997.

TABLE 6.14
Green fodder yield, dry matter yield, crude protein contents crude fibre contents of different oat cultivars

Notes: LSD = Least Significant Difference. P = Probability. Means followed by the same letters do not differ significantly at 1% probability level. DM = dry matter.

Source: Hussain et al., 1993.

The chemical fertilizer treatment for all the trials was 40-60-0 kg NPK ha^-1. There were large differences in the performance of cultivars at all sites, suggesting significant differences in agro-ecological adaptation, highlighting the importance of National Uniform Yield Trials to evaluate newly introduced material. All trials included standard control cultivars (Tables 6.15 to 6.18). Due to genotype × environment interaction, it was not possible to recommend a single cultivar across all locations. The National Uniform Yield Trial is a continuous on-farm evaluation programme, and each year new introductions are included in these trials. In this way, promising cultivars are evaluated for their suitability for diverse agro-ecological conditions throughout Pakistan.

TABLE 6.15
Green fodder yield (t ha^-1) of oat cultivars at five locations across Pakistan

TABLE 6.16
Average green forage yield (t ha^-1) of oats at various locations in 1998- 99

Date of sowing

Supply of fodder mainly depends on the time of sowing. Most farmers try to sow forage crops as early as possible to ensure early availability for livestock. In underdeveloped countries where fodder is very scarce, the time of fodder availability during deficit or lean periods is more important than the total quantity of fodder available. The recommended sowing season for forage oats in the plains of Pakistan is from October 15 to November 15. However, variations in sowing dates reflect many factors: the particular needs of the farmers for their livestock; size and composition of herd; size of land holding; time of expected rainfall; availability of fallow land; and irrigation water supply. In order to assess a suitable sowing date for maximizing forage yields and optimizing time of forage availability, sowing date trials on high fodder yielding oat cv. Scott were conducted at research institutes throughout the country under various agro-ecological environments. The results obtained are presented in Figure 6.4.

TABLE 6. 17
Average green forage yield (t ha^-1) of oats cultivars at various locations during 1999-2000

TABLE 6.18
Green fodder yield (t ha^-1) of oat cultivars at five locations in Pakistan during 1999

At Islamabad and Tandojam, the 20 October sowing, and the 20 November sowing at Sariab, provided maximum forage in December-January, the fodder deficit period. September-sown crops provided acceptable yields in November at all sites; time of fodder availability is directly correlated with sowing time.

Seed production

The introduction of improved cultivars is one of the quickest methods of improving and enhancing yields of all crops. Soon after identification of potential new cultivars, seed bulking, seed distribution and ensuring seed availability to the common farmer are important steps in successful extension. Therefore, all the effort involved in introducing, evaluating and selecting improved forages is in vain if there is insufficient seed produced and made available to the farmer.

Figure 6.4
Green yields (t ha^-1) of oat cv. Scott.

Figure 6.5
Development of seed production of improved oat cultivars in Pakistan, over two decades

In Pakistan, most seed of improved forage and grain cultivars is produced by private companies, government centres and, to a limited extent, by commercial growers. NARC, Islamabad, produces annually almost enough to sow 500 ha. The seed thus bulked is sold to farmers, commercial growers, government and private dairy farms and other agencies and organizations interested in improved oat fodder production and development. In recent years, seed of improved oats has also been sold to the FAO Afghan Programme for multiplication and distribution there. The development of improved oat cultivar seed produced and sold by NARC, Islamabad, and others is presented in Figure 6.5, which clearly shows a steady increase in the production of improved seed. However the demand for improved seed is much greater than the quantities marketed. All the seed of improved fodder oats is used for further increase and subsequent sale to fodder growers of the area.

Conclusions

Livestock have always been a very important part of the agricultural system in Pakistan, but lack of good quality fodder has been an ongoing major constraint on production. Pakistan faces a situation where there is insufficient fodder, in terms of both quantity and quality. High quality fodder is necessary if better returns are to be obtained from improved breeds. Technical development to improve forage production and supplies could be of immense benefit to the health and prosperity of the people. Oats have proved to be an outstanding winter forage throughout Pakistan, particularly for the peri-urban dairies supplying the big cities, and in the high altitude temperate northern regions. Growing oats ensures production of maximum quantities of early, nutritious forage in the deficit periods in winter. It is safe to claim that oats have brought a winter forage green revolution in Pakistan.

Over the past two decades, improved oat cultivars have had a significant impact in improving quality and availability of livestock feed, and, hence, on the lives of people living in resource-poor areas of Pakistan. Forage from oats has helped significantly in mitigating livestock starvation and in improving nutrition, both of animals and of the human population. The recent significant impact of new oat cultivars on the availability of livestock feed and therefore on farmer incomes in resource-poor areas of Pakistan has stimulated the belief that even more can and should be done, both to make existing cultivars more widely available through extensive bulking and to introduce new, better-adapted oat cultivars and other improved fodder crop varieties, thus supporting resource-poor regions through continuous on-farm evaluation with the help and cooperation of the national forage research programme, extension services, private seed companies and NGOs.