IVAR SAMSETPROFESSOR IVAR SAMSET, head of the Norwegian Forest Research Institute, Vollebekk (Det Norske Skogforsøksvesen), gave this paper as an address on his election as Vice-President of the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations, at the fourteenth IUFRO Congress held at Munich, Federal Republic of Germany, in September 1967. Dr. George M. Jemison, Assistant Chief (Research) of the United States Forest Service, was elected President on conclusion of the term of office of Professor Julius Speer President of the German Research Council (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft). The next IUFRO Congress will be held at Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A., in 1971.
Today scientists and research workers from all over the world are assembled for free discussion and exchange of ideas and experiences. This is an occasion when the general trend of forestry may be discussed as well as its challenge to forestry research. I have the honor to present some thoughts concerning this matter, which are of major significance to ale of us.
A year ago more than 2,000 foresters and forest engineers from administrations, science and applied professions met to exchange experience during the World Forestry Congress in Madrid. A question was asked: What is the role of forestry in the changing world economy? There was complete agreement in the optimistic answer that the world demand for wood and wood products is ever increasing, regardless of possible competing products.
Of course this answer had to be positive and optimistic. Apart from the increasing demand for products from the forests there have never before been so many means and so much equipment to maintain and increase the production of the forests and forest industries. This is a result of the general development of ale professions in the world, and it is of basic importance that modern foresters learn to make use of these new methods.
Forestry research is given the important task of marking this road to development through forestry and of guiding its proper course among the various obstacles. Regarding today's convention from such a viewpoint this IUFRO meeting of forestry scientists has an important meaning. The exchange of experience, the give and take of ideas together form the concept of this kind of international co-operation.
The increasing demand for the goods that our forests can produce is not a new experience. Let us for a short moment take a look backward. We know that the ordinary handsaw was constructed more than 3,500 years ago, and it is still impressive to read about logging operations 3,000 years ago in the Lebanese cedar and cypress forests when 30,000 forest workers were felling, skidding, and bundle-floating the logs along the coast line. These were the forest products that enabled King Solomon to build his famous temple.
It is also an historical fact that the Athenians lost the Peloponnesian war against the Spartans 104 years before Christ because of their Lack of ships, because they had no timber to rebuild their navy. When Plato made his thoughts known concerning the lost war in his dialogue Critias, he also made some intelligent remarks concerning the correlation between reforestation, watershed and erosion problems; he thus made the first step into this branch of natural science more than 2,300 years ago. It was not until many centuries later, however, that the science of forestry made a real step forward. We may remember such names as von Beckmann (1700-77) who dealt with silvicultural problems and von Moser (1729-93) who wrote some basic works concerning forest economy.
An FAO publication, Wood: world trends and prospects, was presented to the 1966 World Forestry Congress. This showed that the demand for wood products had never before been higher and requirements were expected to increase in future. In 1961 world consumption of wood was estimated to be 2,130 million cubic meters. The total value of world exports of ale forest products amounted annually to roughly U.S. $5,100 million, which was about 5 percent of the value of total annual world trade. It is assumed that by 1975 the world will require about 2,690 million cubic meters, which is 560 million cubic meters or 25 percent more than in 1961. Seventy percent of the world's total increase in requirements will be in the developed countries where consumption of wood-based panel, paper and paperboards is growing faster than the consumption of sawnwood. For this, dimensions and form will be of less importance than quantity and the cost of wood and wood fibers.
The FAO report also gives interesting information concerning wood supplies, which suggests some of the general future trends in forestry. Europe and the United States have small amounts of additional mature or overmature sawlog-sized conifers. There will be an increased proportion of younger age-classes and smaller dimensions. In the U.S.S.R. and in Canada there are still huge areas with mature and overmature virgin forests. These are remote areas from which an increased delivery of wood products is largely dependent upon the transportation network and technique and the cost of transportation. Annual removal in the U.S.S.R. is about 60 percent and in Canada 45 percent of the harvestable wood: these resources may be harvested if the necessary facilities are developed. In the tropical rain forests there are rather large areas of forests with an extreme mixture of tree species. Utilization of these forests is mainly dependent on developments in harvesting methods and an integrated wood-using industry. Lastly can be taken into account all the plantations around the world of fast growing tree species which represent an increasing potential for the supply of industrial wood.
This optimistic picture demonstrates that the increasing demand for wood may be met by an increasing activity in our forests. There are sufficient resources but to attain this goal the following major problems typical of modern forestry have be overcome:
1. Development of methods for increased planting programs.2. Development of methods for thinning operations and harvesting methods for small-sized wood.
3. Silvicultural means for increased fiber production at acceptable cost.
4. Development of economic logging and transport methods for remote areas and difficult mountainous terrain.
5. Development of the wood-processing industries enabling them to make use of a larger variety of tree species, as well as a continuous mixture of tree species.
The potential of world forests is large enough to meet the increased requirement of wood if the professionals and scientists responsible can find a way to solve these problems. This is primarily an undertaking for the forestry research organizations of the world, for successful solutions are largely dependent on the activity of forestry and forest industries research.
Since IUFRO started in 1890, forestry and forest industries research has given guidelines to forestry practice. Both basic and applied research in this field have supplied the fundamentals on which modern forestry is based.
Provenance and genetic research are good examples. Manmade forests of Eucalyptus, Pinus radiata and others south of the temperate zone have locally given yields which are sometimes five times those in northern forests.
In the last annual report from the School of Forestry at the North Carolina State University, U.S.A., Professor Zobel (1) explains that improved yield, improved quality of the wood and longer fibered tree species resistant to pests can be expected as a result of provenance experiments and genetic research. Similar results have been obtained from various research centers. They are interesting today because of the possibility of obtaining a less expensive silvicultural program with few thinnings.
Forestry research is gradually developing methods for economic reforestation with seedlings of high genetic value. By means of advanced nursery techniques and the conversion from bare-root planting to container planting and lump planting, there is hope of obtaining cheap and highly mechanized planting even in rugged and stony terrain. Further developments along these lines may lead to forestry practice favorable for the introduction of all-motorized operations at an economic cost.
Another example is the fertilization of Norway spruce in the northern temperate forests (Figure 1). With 150 kilograms of nitrogen per hectare, annual yield increased by about 3 cubic meters per hectare. Professor Brantseg (2) estimated that about 10 million hectares are suitable for fertilization in northern Europe. This may probably lead to an increase in the felling volume of about 30 million cubic meters per year. Experiments since 1963 in fertilizing pulpwood stands from the air in western Canada have shown a similar effect. These results are very promising for forestry in the future.
In the wood technology sector, accelerated developments have been registered during recent years. The wood-processing industries have increased their productivity and considerably reduced processing costs, obviously a result of forest products research.
An example of these developments is given by labor productivity. In the traditional small and middle-sized sawmills, labor consumption has often varied from one to three man-days per cubic meter, and in some developing countries sawmills still use as much as 13 man-days per cubic meter in contrast to modern highly productive sawmills with labor consumption as low as 0.3 to 0.4 man-day per cubic meter.
The same development may be observed in the pulp and paper industry. A medium-sized traditional sulfate industry producing 300 tons per day now uses 0.2 to 0.3 man-day per cubic meter.
The considerable improvement is of course the result of many experiments and research works. As examples, the conversion from the traditional paper machine to inverform, twinverform or papriformers might be mentioned. Such new methods lead to improved paper structure and higher productivity. Speeds of 1,500 meters per minute on the paper machine are now under discussion with respect to the production of newsprint.
Another example is bleaching, which for a modern kraft pulp mill often represents half of the total mill costs. Professor Rapson's research work at the University of Toronto, Canada, concerning the brightening of groundwood and bleached paper on the machine instead of bleaching the pulp before sheets are made, points to rather interesting developments in this field.
Some of the findings in modern forestry and forest industries research are of special significance to the future development of world forestry. Typical trends in the application of these results may be summarized as follows:
1. Close co-ordination between the forest production and the wood-processing industries.
2. Integration of various types of processing industries.
3. New processing methods which allow high production with smaller equipment.
The introduction of axial or spiral chippers is a typical example. They can square logs for lumber during the production of chips from the slabs, and thus open the way for the integration of sawmilling and pulping. Axial chippers can operate with less power than standard chippers and with reduced vibration; this points to interesting possibilities for portable chipping in the forest. Combined with a portable barker, the method may be of interest for the thinning or harvesting of second-grade wood.
The production of mechanical pulp from chips is another revolutionary development, not least because of its effect on the co-ordination of forestry and wood-processing problems. Making superior groundwood by means of refiners has spread rapidly and represents about 7 percent of world production of mechanical pulp. The introduction of continuous digesters in the production of kraft pulp of high quality instead of the conventional processing method on a batch basis should certainly be mentioned in this connection. The process cycle is reduced to 30 percent compared with the traditional method. This could start a trend toward smaller equipment with smaller production as well as capital costs. Dr. Lincoln R. Thiesmeyer (3) underlines the importance of research efforts in establishing the correlation between the characteristics of wood and the end product: such research work should be supported. Increased technical and biological knowledge may help our processing industry to make good products at acceptable prices from the variety of wood species. A positive result is of prime importance for a suitable silvicultural program.
One important part of forestry production is the input of manual and motorized labor, together with the administration and maintenance of these production factors; harvesting, silvicultural work and transportation are included. Research development during the last decades has led to a complete change in our traditional thinking.
There are still examples of labor-intensive harvesting methods or labor-consuming methods needing more than 5 man-days per cubic meter. But there are also examples of advanced, completely mechanized harvesting methods using less than 0.1 man-day per cubic meter (Figure 2). What is happening is nothing less than a revolution leading to the complete industrialization of forestry. The forest industry has profited much from the general technical evolution in other professions, for example from the development of powerful lightweight motors, high pressure hydraulics and pneumatics, and the use of radio and other means of remote control. Track-laying vehicles with flexible tracks and good flotation make areas with soft ground or heavy snow accessible while the recent development of articulated frame steered tractors with big rubber tires has made available cross-country vehicles with good flotation. Motorpower has been brought into the forest.
A typical factor in the improvement of long distance transportation from forest to mill is the continuity of the transport sequence. Improved transportation networks as well as truck equipment are evident Of special interest are the advanced loading and unloading devices which reduce all terminal costs to a minimum. Today trees are very often harvested one day and processed at the mill just a few days later.
Some experiments do not follow traditional lines.
The Canadian experiments with long-distance transportation of chips in pipelines are good examples.
The most exciting part of this evolution may lie in the new harvesting machines. Some of them are based on full tree logging with centralized conversion of trees to logs or chips. Others are operating in the stands, converting trees to various assortments. These developments are no longer limited to academic discussion. In North America, the Scandinavian countries and the U.S.S.R., there are several such machines of various designs in practical research operations. They have passed the first experimental stage and a rapid practical application of these new methods to forestry during the coming years is to be expected.
Even the inaccessible mountain forests, where forest operations are expensive or uneconomic, have been a subject of research. The development of cableways is well known, and the recent balloon and helicopter transport of timber from mountainous regions has given food for thought (Figure 3). One promising development in this field is the radio-maneuvered cable crane which has operated successfully in experiments in Norwegian mountain forests.
Since the first motorchain saw was constructed in 1858, development has passed through various stages. From manual work to the use of motorized hand tools, a stage has now been reached where the forest worker is being replaced by the machine operator. We can in the future expect much from automation where multipurpose machines automatically undertake the sequence of several operations.
There are several serious economic reasons why we should welcome this technical development in forestry. This may be exemplified by the development of prices of industrial products during the last 15 years. In many industries the prices of products have decreased. The annual decrease for bleached sulfate pulp has been 1.1 percent. There is the same tendency as for rolled steel (annual decrease of 1.7 percent). The annual price decrease of polyethylene has been as much as 4.8 percent. During the same 15 years there has been an increase in the costs of industrial labor. In Norway this amounts to an average of 11.1 percent per year. The industry has had to meet this situation of decreased prices of products and increased manual labor costs by development of new processing methods of high efficiency. The wood-processing industries, however, have also faced an increase in the costs of their raw material. The average annual increase in pulpwood prices in Norway during the last 15 years was 6.1 percent.
These examples may make it clear that the same increase in prices of forest products cannot be expected in the future as in the past. But there is no reason why this should lead to any form of pessimism. The overall technical evolution has shown the way and it is up to forestry research to convert these opportunities into developments.
It is a general trend in most countries with forest practice that the costs of manual labor are increasing rapidly. During the last 15 years the annual average increase in various European countries has been 10 to 15 percent. In eastern Canada the annual increase has been approximately 9 percent. In a country like India there has also been a slight annual rise in prices, but it has been significantly less than in Europe, namely 6 to 7 percent. This gives rise to the idea that the cost increase of manual labor is somewhat less in the developing countries than in more developed countries of Europe. It is also interesting to note that the increase has been somewhat less again in high income countries such as the United States and Canada.
It is a common tendency in all countries, whether they are more or less developed, for the cost increase to be considerably greater for manual labor than for machine work (Figure 4). Improvement in manufacturing methods has led to lower manufacturing costs. Improvement of machines has led to lighter equipment which is more powerful and more useful. Lower operating and maintenance costs are the main reason for this evolution. This leads one to the conclusion that it is more and more necessary to transfer low-productive manual labor into complete motorization of all forest operations.
FIGURE 4. - Cost development of manual work and machine work in some countries.
Price levels vary greatly in various regions. Calculated in U.S. dollars the daily wage of a forest worker in 1965 was $0.50 per day in Uganda, $1 in India, $2-4 in Greece, $11 in Scandinavia and $20 in eastern Canada (Figure 5). Some of the developing countries will no doubt continue with labor-intensive methods for some time to deal with the underemployment problem. It is known that evolution to advanced mechanized working methods takes place step by step. It is rather human that we try to keep the traditional methods as long as possible until the price pressure of forest operations makes it necessary to change to better methods. This evolution is like a law of conformity. Let us call it the law of discontinuous evolution (Figure 6).
FIGURE 5. - Increase in labor costs in some countries.
FIGURE 6. - The law of discontinuous evolution.
STAGE I. Economic pressure stage. Costs per man-day increase more than productivity when making use of the traditional operational methods.STAGE II. Development stage. The costs per man-day have become too high in relation to the productivity of the method. Economic pressure leads to an intensive experimental activity in order to test and arrive at a new method.
STAGE. III. Introduction stage. When the new method has been tested it is introduced on the market. The price per man-day increases because labor must make use of expensive equipment
STAGE IV. Stabilizing stage. The new operational method to put into action but is still in the process of development, for example in the case of organizing the work and applying it to forestry. There is a minor increase in productivity; and the workers gradually demand higher wages.
FIGURE 7. - Relative increase in logging costs and productivity in Norway.
METHOD I. Manual conversion into assortments at the stump.
METHOD III. Tree length skidding with articulated frame steered tractors.
METHOD IV. Tree length skidding and mechanized conversion.
Accordingly, the development from one operational method to another can be assumed to progress in four stages. During the economic pressure stage the cost of using the traditional working method is growing too high. During the development stage new methods are tested by experimental activity. During the introduction stage the new method is being introduced on the market. During the stabilization stage the new operational methods are co-ordinated with all the other activities and needs of forestry.
This type of discontinous evolution of forest working methods is described for Norway (Figure 7) and for eastern Canada. It seems that this also is a part of the general trend in forestry. Even in regions where labor-intensive methods are used today, a rather rapid changeover to mechanized forest operations is to be expected in the future. The less developed countries will be able to learn from and profit by the steps which already have been taken by the more advanced forest countries (Figure 8).
FIGURE 8. - Even in those regions where labor intensive methods are used today, a rather rapid change over to mechanized forest operations is to be expected.
FIGURE 8. The less developed countries will learn from and profit by the steps which already have been taken by the more advanced countries.
It is evident that advanced and highly mechanized harvesting and transport methods are useful in clear fellings under easy terrain conditions. The mechanization of thinning operations is much more difficult. When using traditional methods the operational costs of thinnings are two to four times as high as the harvesting costs of the final cut. It is therefore important for forestry research to develop silvicultural methods with few thinnings. Simultaneously, it is of importance to seek economic logging methods for these thinnings.
Harvesting costs in steep and difficult mountain forests with traditional methods are often two to four times as high as those on easy terrain. Thinnings and selective cuttings are especially expensive under such terrain conditions, and the development of new methods is an important challenge to modern forestry research.
The conclusion of this survey must be an optimistic one. The ever-increasing demand for forestry products all over the world is significant. We also have a fund of results from many years of forestry and forest industries research whose application will improve forestry and forest operations. Forestry scientists have never before had better tools, implements and instruments for their research work. Sound and continuous research as well as the application of the results to forestry practice is a sure way - and the only way - to overcome the difficulties which modern forestry is facing.
It is assumed that investment in forestry research amounts to about 0.5 percent of the product-value. Certain industries such as chemicals and metals are investing 3 to 5 percent of the product-value in research and development. Let us hope that forestry research will be given enough funds in the future to carry out its tasks to full extent.
Some of the proposed silvicultural methods and forestry practices are based upon results from forestry research carried out a long time ago when operational conditions were rather different from those existing today, so that industrialized methods sometimes have to be introduced which interfere with or run counter to traditional forestry. There must be a compromise where the results from biological as well as technical and economical research have to be taken into account. Today therefore it is more important than ever to have good contacts among research workers from the various forestry research sections. It is also necessary to keep in good contact with research outside forestry.
The International Union of Forestry Research Organizations is one international body through which scientists from all over the world and from the various sections of forestry research can meet for an exchange of experience. This gives each participant an excellent opportunity to discuss pertinent questions with scientists of various backgrounds. During the Congress there have been good examples of direct co-operation. Thinning problems are going to be discussed among scientists from various sections, as is genetic resistance to forest diseases, the morphologic structure of wood from a genetic and technological angle, and also labor productivity problems.
Forestry all over the world is expecting much from forestry It is therefore obvious that the results should be given in such a form that they are easy to apply in forestry practice.
It is a privilege for a scientist to be able to deal with his problem free from any outside influence. However, taking into account the inevitable economic limitations, all forestry research, even basic research, should preferably aim at application to forestry practice.
The general trend of modern forestry is leading rapidly to the complete industrialization of forest operations: this is an absolute necessity. It is a responsibility and a challenge to modern forestry research - biological, technological, technical and economic forestry research - to develop those methods which can lead forestry all over the world toward a successful future.
(1) ZOBEL, B.J. 1967. Eleventh annual report. North Carolina State Industry Cooperative Tree Improvement Program. School of Forestry, North Carolina State University. Raleigh. 42 P.
(2) BRANTSEG, A. 1954. Kan vi øke produksjonen av nyttbart virke gjennom skogbehandlingen? [Are we able to increase the production of usable wood by means of forest treatments?] Norsk Skogindustri 8: P. 271-281.
(3) THIESMEYER L.R. 1966. Some new techniques in forestry and industry. Unasylva 20 (4): P. 12-16.
At its sixteenth session held at Munich, Federal Republic of Germany, 5-6 September 1967, the committee agreed on the following amendment to the Oxford Decimal Classification for Forestry.
AMENDMENT No. 6 ODC
|
181.2 |
add comment [where possible, refer for preference to subheads of 4; influence of environmental pollution see 181.46]. |
|
181.21 |
add the following subdivisions: |
|
.211 |
Light requirements and tolerance in general |
|
.212 |
Seasonal light requirements and tolerance; photoperiodic behaviour |
|
.213 |
Effect on light in the environment |
|
.219 |
Miscellaneous |
|
181.22 |
add the following subdivisions: |
|
.221 |
Temperature requirements and tolerance in general |
|
.221.1 |
Reaction to cold |
|
.221.2 |
Reaction to heat [Reaction to drought see 181.31, to fire see 181.43] |
|
221.9 |
Miscellaneous |
|
.222 |
Seasonal temperature requirements and tolerance; thermoperiodic behaviour |
|
.223 |
Effect on temperature in the environment |
|
.229 |
Miscellaneous |
|
181.23 |
for Reaction to wind read Relations to wind and other air movements |
|
181.231 |
cancel text and substitute: Wind tolerance in general |
|
add 181.232 |
Reaction to particular types of wind |
|
add 181.233 |
Effects on wind and other air movements |
|
add 181.24 |
Reaction to precipitations (e.g. snow, hail) [cf. also Water relations 181.31] |
|
add 181.26 |
Relation to electrical phenomena (lightning, etc.) |
|
181.4 |
read biotic influences, fire, and environmental pollution [where possible, refer for preference to subheads of 4] |
|
add 181.45 |
Influence of environmental pollution |
|
305 |
amend text to read: Sequence of work and performance. Calculation of wages based on performance measurements (time and performance tables, evaluation of work) |
