Cross-sectoral policy impacts in forestry - Examples from within and outside FAO

Land use and tenure

Number				Name		Affiliation				Department
16				Kari Keipi		Inter-American Development Bank
Country/ies				Area/region		Continent				Other countries with similar policies
Brazil and Central/Latin America				Amazon and other forest areas		South and Central America
Income		Forest cover		Policy involved		Main policy area
High		High		Yes		Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Land use and tenure
Forest/socio-economic classifications
Lowland forest in the humid tropics with a low population density, also temperate oceanic, sub-tropical dry forest, Sub-tropical humid and tropical dry forest
Scale of impact (-3 to +3)
Forest cover	Forest alteration		Management capacity		Forest product processors		Markets & demands	Forest products supply	Soil & water		Socio-economic effects
-3	-2		0		0		0	2	-3		2
Summary
Roading and agricultural land use policies in Brazil and Central America, which aimed to encourage settlement in under populated areas, led to deforestation between 1979 and 1994. Areas of land were claimed through evidence of some kind of management input, which often meant burning. Subsidised livestock credit was also available in frontier areas. Livestock has a greater impact in Latin America than in other areas as there are few natural grazing animals and plants are therefore without natural defences.
Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.
http://earthtrends.wri.org/; http://www.unrisd.org/engindex/publ/list/dp/dp36/toc.htm; Kaimowitz, D. (1996) Livestock and Deforestation. Central America in the 1980s and 1990s: A Policy Perspective. CIFOR special publication; Laarman, J.G. (1995) Government policies affecting forest in Latin America. An agenda for discussion. IADB, http://www.iadb.org/sds/publication/publication_77_e.htm

Number		Name		Affiliation						Department
17		Frederic Deve		FAO						ESAC
Country/ies		Area/region		Continent			Other countries with similar policies
Guatemala				South and Central America
Income		Forest cover		Policy involved			Main policy area
Low		High		Yes			Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Land use and tenure
Forest/socio-economic classifications
Lowland forest in the humid tropics with a high population density,
Scale of impact (-3 to +3)
Forest cover	Forest alteration		Management capacity		Forest product processors	Markets & demands		Forest products supply	Soil & water		Socio-economic effects
-2	-2		0		0	0		1	-1		1
Summary
In South America (e.g. Guatemala) pressure on land has resulted from population growth and subsequent migration. Migrants often clear forest to plant maize and beans. After a few years the land converted to pasture and sold and the process is repeated. The system results not only from population growth but also from land tenure policy and the fact that labour is more productive in frontier areas.
Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Gerard Buttoud

French Institute of Forestry, Agricultural and Environmental Engineering

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

Kyrgystan

Asia

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

Low

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Land use and tenure

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Highland and mountain forest in a tropical or temperate region,

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

-1

Summary

Leasing of land in Kyrgyzstan - an example of the privatisation process in former USSR countries, presented as "collaborative management". In Kyrgyzstan the lease of forest land, on the same basis as for other land, has led to: better protection by the leasees from cattle grazing or informal collecting than was the case under a com mon system of management; loss of multifunctional forest management and the promotion of only commercial production. The effects of private ownership differ from one situation to another but in forestry, especially, private ownership may not be the best solution where productivity is low. Forests in most areas provide goods and services to many beneficiaries and attributing rights to only one may create problems, even with sustainable management. Most leases have been granted to foresters who are paid little by the State forest farms, but who are supposed to know how to manage forests. The result is in some respects the officialisation of clientelism.

Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Marius Lazdinis/Adrian Whiteman/Dominique Reeb

FAO

FONS

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

former USSR

All

Europe

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

Low

High

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Land use and tenure

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Temperate and boreal forest in an industrialised country in transition to a market economy,

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

-1

-2

-1

-2

Summary

Lazdinis: In Lithuania land was restituted to former owners or descendants; sometimes these people were urban dwellers sometimes rural. The parcels of land were often small due to division amongst offspring. State forest enterprises are not allowed to work in restituted areas although the state is taking care of the overall management of forests with respect to cutting licences, etc. Often the new forest owners did not have the means to carry out silvicultural activities although some were able to carry out the strict management regime laid down by the state forest enterprise which requires for a management plan before felling can go ahead. This has resulted in contraventions such as giving land rights to 'down and outs' so that the forest can be cut without recrimination. In Lithuania only state or private individuals can own or lease land therefore owners may form co-operatives and hire private companies to manage the forest. The same laws do not apply in Latvia and these laws will have to be changed for EU entry so the situation is in transition. Whiteman: Land reforms (restitution and redistribution) in countries previously in the USSR has lead to different effects in different countries. In Lithuania the number of forest owners is expected to rise to 120000 after restitution has been completed. In Romania where land was divided up amongst the population people tended to clear trees from their parcel of land. Reeb: In Slovenia (also Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary) the forestlands were kept in private ownership but management was nationalised. In Bulgaria and Romania the forest was completely nationalised and now in Bulgaria the amount of land given may be only 0.5 ha per person. The owners may not know where the land is or be able to get to it. The forest services have lost control of the land and it is now often not being managed which has lead to the proliferation of illegal logging. In Albania there has been no restitution but privatisation of community owned forests is being pushed. There has been extensive forest degradation because of the reaction against the state after years of repression. Countries where the previous regime was less strict have the best situation at present because, for example, names of owners were not erased.

Policy name or reference

Land restitution and reform programme

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

http://miskai.gamta.lt/parkai/depas/strateg.htm; http://miskai.gamta.lt/mec/eng/index.htm; http://www.fao.org/Legal/Prs-OL/valetta.PDF. TCP/LIT/7821 (A)

Rural development

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Jeremy Broadhead

FAO

FONP

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

Brazil

Amazon

South and Central America

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

High

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Rural development

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Lowland forest in the humid tropics with a low population density,

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

-3

-2

-3

Summary

Brazil plans to invest $40 billion in development projects in the Amazon Basin. The six year program, called "Advance Brazil", proposes new highways, railways, gas pipelines, power lines, hydroelectric and river-channelisation. It is intended to accelerate economic development in the industrial, agriculture, timber and mining sectors. "No one is suggesting that Brazil forego development in the Amazon, but there are far less destructive ways to exploit the region," said Laurance. "Rather than punching many new roads and highways into the remote frontier," he added, "we are pushing for slower deforestation and more efficient use of existing agricultural lands than cattle ranching." He noted that he and others are promoting more intensive land uses, to produce fruit trees, timber and other valuable commodities.

Policy name or reference

Advance Brazil Program

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

http://www.eixos.gov.br/; http://www.abrasil.gov.br/; Laurance W.F., Cochrane M.A., Bergen S., Fearnside P.M., Delamonica P., Barber C., D'Angelo S. & Fernandes T. (2001) Environment - The future of the Brazilian Amazon. Science 291, 438-439

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Jim Carle

FAO

FORM

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

Laos

Asia

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

Low

High

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Rural development

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Lowland forest in the humid tropics with a low population density,

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

-2

-1

Summary

Much of the logging in recent years in Laos has been the result of projects of national strategic importance, e.g. dams, roads, agricultural extension, most of which has been carries out by the military.

Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

Social policy

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Kari Keipi/Luc Dubreuil

Inter-American Development Bank

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

Colombia

South and Central America

Many others

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

Low

High

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Social policy (population & social affairs)

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Lowland forest in the humid tropics with a low population density, also highland and mountain forest in a tropical or temperate region

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

Summary

Stabilisation of land tenure and establishment of reserves for indigenous people contributed to the reduction of deforestation rates.

Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Luc Dubreuil/Materne Maetz

FAO

TCII

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

Mali, Mauritania, Rwanda

Africa

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

Low

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Social policy (population & social affairs)

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Lowland forest in the humid tropics with a high population density, also forest and tree vegetation in arid or semi-arid land

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

-2

-1

Summary

Resettlement of refugees in Africa often involves establishment of communities in forests. This has happened in NE Kagera in Rwanda where Tutsis, bringing their cattle, settled in the northern parts of a national park after returning from Rwanda following the events of 1994. They could not return to the central areas of Rwanda owing to risks of further clashes with the Hutus. in Similar situations exist in Mali and Mauritania, where there are Malians refugees in Mauritania and vice-versa.

Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Michel Laverdiere

FAO

FAOSAFR

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

Mozambique

Africa

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

Low

High

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Social policy (population & social affairs)

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Lowland forest in the humid tropics with a low pop ulation density, also Tropical dry forest

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

Summary

Recently the government has adopted a policy and passed legislation to support the rights of Forest Communities to manage woodlands and their products and also to impose taxes and levies on related products and activities. This instilled greater confidence in sustainable forest management. To date the main impact has been a reinforced sense of ownership of resources and activities within the legislative control of the forest communities. It has also prompted government to pass regulations enabling communities to confirm land tenure. Thus, a forestry/natural resources management inspired measure has had a wide impact on land use and land tenure at large. For further information contact CTA Eduardo Mansur, in Maputo in relation to the FAO project: GCP/MOZ/056/NET. The results obtained are in major part due to the project’s initiatives and lobbying.

Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Adrian Whiteman/Luc Dubreuil

FAO

FONS

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

Indonesia

Kalimantan and other islands outside Java

Asia

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

Low

High

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Social policy (population & social affairs)

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Lowland forest in the humid tropics with a low population density

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

-1

Summary

Transmigration policies led to forest clearance as transmigration camps were established in forest areas with no legislation as to what was what wasn't allowed. This resulted in forest clearance for dwellings and agriculture. Additionally, provision of concessions for oil palm and pulp wood plantations resulted in forest clearance. Land use classifications were also a problem as different ministries had different maps. Several ministries were moving communities to reclaim land on Java and then other ministries were moving them again amongst the outer islands. Amongst all these happenings forests were treated as free land.

Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

http://www.indopubs.com/tarchives/0065.html;

http://www.uni-freiburg.de/fireglobe/iffn/country/id/id_24.htm;

http://www.indonesia-ottawa.org/Handbook99/contdev3.htm#1;

Hoffmann, A., Hinrichs, A., and Siegert, F. 1999. Fire Damage in East Kalimantan in 1997/98 Related to Land Use and Vegetation Classes: Satellite Radar Inventory Results and Proposals for Further Actions. Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops (MoFEC) and GTZ.

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Materne Maetz

FAO

TCAS

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

Nepal

Asia

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

Low

High

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Social policy (population & social affairs)

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Highland and mountain forest in a tropical or temperate region,

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

-2

Summary

In Nepal policies were changed to allow agricultural encroachment and migration into the Tarai which resulted in forest clearance and degradation. This situation indicated that effective policy would be likely to result in outcomes preferable to either prohibition of use or open access with little legislation.

Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

Trade

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

CTS Nair

FAO

FONS

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

Kenya

Africa

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

Low

High

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Trade

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Forest and tree vegetation in arid or semi-arid land, Tropical shrubland (FRA Global Ecological Zone)

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

-2

-1

Summary

Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) agreements have resulted in closure of Kenyan sawmills due to the relatively higher prices of labour and services in Kenya. Production of sawnwood has therefore moved to other countries in the COMESA area.

Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Jim Bourke

FAO

FOPH

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

World-wide

All

Several/all

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

All

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Trade

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Wide ranging effects

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

Summary

WTO agreements to reduce tariff and non-tariff trade barriers can lead to greater competition from outside in forest product and forest derived product markets and can also lead to greater access to export markets. Changes are therefore likely to affect the forest industry and sustainable forest management. Import tariffs are, however, usually low for relatively unprocessed forest products but generally increase as more value is added. The tariffs are both country and product specific and therefore broad generalisations are difficult to make. However, tariffs are generally higher in developing countries which means that their lowering will open the markets to external competition which may cause shrinkage of forestry and forest industries. A clause in the agreement allows for exemptions on environmental grounds to protect human health, however, it is unlikely that this could be used in association with forestry. In general tariffs are not a major problem to exporters except for specific products in some countries. Non-tariff measures are more difficult to assess and trade impediments are fairly unpredictable, depending on environmental movements, etc. Developing countries may have more difficulties in keeping up with changes owing to a lack of capacity and less influence in the negotiating process.

Policy name or reference

Uruguay Round of Multilateral trade negotiations

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

http://www.wto.org; Bourke, I. J. and Leitch, J. (1998) Trade Restrictions and their Impact on International Trade in Forest Products. FAO; FAO (1999) FAO trade-related technical assistance and information, FAO.

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Lennart Ljungman

FAO

FOND

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

World-wide

Several/all

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

Low

All

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Trade (e.g. tariffs, export taxes, trade restrictions)

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Wide ranging effects

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

-2

Summary

To balance payments export industries are often subsidised rather those associated with import substitution in order that power holding individuals and/or government ministers can apprehend foreign currency earnings. Forestry may suffer as a result of wood being a readily available, exportable resource in countries with high levels of corruption.

Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.

Structural adjustment programs

Number

Name

Affiliation

Department

Lennart Ljungman

FAO

FOND

Country/ies

Area/region

Continent

Other countries with similar policies

Developing countries

Several/all

Income

Forest cover

Policy involved

Main policy area

Low

All

Yes

Public policies establishing the institutional framework: Structural adjustment programs

Forest/socio-economic classifications

Wide ranging effects

Scale of impact (-3 to +3)

Forest cover

Forest alteration

Management capacity

Forest product processors

Markets & demands

Forest products supply

Soil & water

Socio-economic effects

-1

Summary

Structural adjustment programmes may adversely affect sustainable forest management by reducing the number of civil servants working in forestry departments. Without concomitant increases in efficiency may result in insufficient management inputs.

Policy name or reference

Supporting references, web sites, etc.