APPENDIX X

THE SITUATION OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES, RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA

M. Kisto Mintardjo

Indonesia is endowed with an extensive coastal area around its 13,000 islands, having about 80,000 kilometres of coast. The zone covers extensive waters with scattered coral reef, numerous lagoons, emboyments, and coves, and a large number of estuarine areas. Likewise, the mangrove belt and mudflats are extensive, estimated at over 3 million hectares. These environments abound with a diverse variety of sea organisms, both plant and animal.

Being an archipelagic country, Indonesia's production is dominated by marine fishery (Table 1).

Source: Fisheries Statistics of Indonesia, 1986

This marine production comes from mostly capture fishery. Production from seafarming is at present very little.

However, the government of Indonesia now gives high priority to seafarming for the following reasons:

• The high potential of the Indonesian waters for the development of profitable activities.

• The role of seafarming in the programme of increasing fish production maintaining environmental condition, and balancing capture activities.

• The role of seafarming in providing employment opportunities with low cost technology.

• The role of seafarming in improving the income of the needy coastal population by increasing supply of animal protein.

To develop seafarming, the Indonesian government promulgated Presidential Decree No. 23 proclaimed on 25 May 1982, and Ministerial Decree No. 473 of 8 July 1982.

Resources

1. Seaweed

Seaweed of the genus Eucheuma have been an important fishery export item. Eucheuma cottonii and E. spinosum are the main species of seaweed which are cultivated commercially particularly in Bali and West Nusa Tenggara waters.

Table 3 shows that the distribution of seaweed is largely concentrated in the coastal areas of West Sumatera, South Java, North Java, Bali/Nusa Tenggara, South Sulawesi and Maluku/Irian Jaya.

2. Finfish

The number of potential species of finfish suitable for culture in netcages is fast growing. Some of the species are:

1. Serranidae (groupers, coral trouts)

   Epinephelus tauvina (estuarine grouper)
   E. malabaricus (malaoar grouper)
   Plectropomus leopardus (leopard coral trout)
   P. maculatus

2. Lutjanidae (snappers)

   Lutjanus sanguineus (red snapper)
   L. sebae (emperer snapper)
   L. argentimaculatus (mangrove snapper)
   L. johni (johnis snapper)

3. Latidae (seabass)

   Lates calcarifer (seabass)

4. Carnagidae (jacks, crevalles, travalles, pampanos, scade, amber jacks, yellow tails)

   Caranx sexfasciatus (six-banded jack)
   Carangoides chrysophrys
   Carangoides malabaricus
   Carangoides armatus

5. Siganidae (rabbit fishes, spinyfoots)

   Siganus javus
   Siganus canaliculatus
   Siganus guttatus
   Siganus spinus

Culture of groupers, snappers and seabass in floating net cages and pens is commonly practised by fishermen in Riau Archipelago district and Bangka island.

3. Molluscs

Molluscs of economic importance and high potential for seafarming in Indonesian coastal waters include cockle (Anadara granosa), mussel (Perna viridis), and oyster (Crassostrea cuculata and Crassotrea iredalei).

a. Cockle

Cockle culture was practised by local fisherman at Mauk (West Java) from 1950 to 1969. Production was 5 tons/ha/year. The activity was halted in 1973 due to lack of seed.

b. Mussel

The culture of green mussel in Indonesia is still at the trial stage. The culture trials were carried out at Banten Bay in West Java with the technical assistance of the Japan International Cooperation Agency. The commercial trial was also carried out at Kuala Penet, Maringgai, Lampung by the Seafarming Development Project FAO/ UNDP IND/81/008.

c. Oysters

The native rock oyster is reportedly being cultured on stake at Kwanyan, Bangkalan in Madura island, but on a limited scale. Besides stake culture, the oyster can also be cultured on rock or suspended from floating raft.

Production

1. Seaweeds

Three methods are used in Eucheuma seaweed culture: bottom, fixed off bottom and raft.

a. Bottom method

This method is the traditional way of growing seaweed by tying the seed of seaweed to corals, stones or reef and lined on the seabed into plots of uniform size.

b. Fixed off bottom method

The method is less laborious, more economical and easier to maintain. It is easier to clean the plots, control predators, replant missing plants, and harvest.

c. Raft method

With this method, grazing problems can be minimized. The system offers a constant-level planting by which a particular level can be chosen for optimum light intensity to obtain highest yield. In Indonesia, floating rafts used for seaweed culture are made of bamboo and use monofilament nylon line as a culture supporting system.

The seaweed production in Indonesia in 1986 was 72,805 tons (Table 2). Table 3 shows that Bali and Nusa Tenggara gave the highest share. These were mostly cultured.

2. Molluscs

Mollusc production in Indonesia was from natural grounds in West Sumatera, South Java, Malacca Straits, East Sumatera, North Java, Bali/Nusa Tenggara, South/West Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, North Sulawesi and Maluku/Irian Jaya.

The 1986 production data (Table 4) shows that the most important is blood cockles (Anadara sp).

Source: Fisheries Statistics of Indonesia, 1986

Source: Fisheries Statistics of Indonesia, 1986

Source: Fisheries Statistics of Indonesia, 1986

Potential Areas for Development

1. Seaweed

The known potential areas for seaweed farming are identified in Table 5 which shows the hectarage. There are 43 areas spread over 21 localities that stretch from West Sumatera to Irian Jaya. The total area is about 21,000 ha.

The main areas for Eucheuma farming would be in Riau, Lampung, Jakarta, Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, South Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi and Irian Jaya.

Gelidium can be grown in West Sumatera, South Sumatera, Riau, West Java, Bali and West Nusa Tenggara while the potential area for culture of Gracilaria are foud in Central Java, East Java and Maluku. Hypnea can be grown in almost every seaweed producing area.

2. Finfish

The potential area for finfish culture in floating netcages are Batam islands, Bintan island Riau, Bangka island in South Sumatera, Tekuk Hurun, Tekuk Lampung, Banten bay in West Java, Grajagan Banyuwangi, Gili Genteng bay, Madura in East Java, Pejarakan in Bali, Ekas bay, Lombok in West Nusa Tenggara, Ujungpandang in South Sulawesi, Ambon in Maluku and Sangihe island in North Sulawesi. The estimated total area suitable for netcage culture of marine finfish is about 2,900 ha.

3. Molluscs

a. Cockle

The potential area suitable for farming cockles is about 16,500 ha. The main areas are in Tj. Balai, North Sumatera; Kuala Penet, Lampung; Maug Tangerang, West Java; Demak, Jepara, Tayu Pati and Rembang in Central Java; Kenjeran, Pasuruan and Probolinggo in East Java and Bima bay, Sumbawa in West Nusa Tenggara.

*   The locations of all these areas are indicated in the UNDP/FAO Project INS/81/008 publication “Seafarming Resources Map” available at Balai Budidaya Laut, P.O. Box 74/TK, Telukbetung, Jakarta, Indonesia.

b. Mussel

The potential areas suitable for culture mussel on pole and raft are Tj. North Sumatera; Kuala Penet, Maringgai in Lampung: Banten bay, Ketapang in West Java; Ancol bay in Jakarta; Jepara in Central Java; Kenjeran, Pasuruan, Probolinggo and Mwanyan in East Java and Labuan Lombok in West Nusa Tenggara. The total area is around 19,700 ha (Table 8).

c. Oysters

The potential areas suitable for oyster culture under those systems are Ketapang, West Java; Demak, Jepara in Central Java; Kenjeran, Pasuruan, Probolinggo, Kwanyan in East Java; Lombok bay, Lombok, Bima bay Sumbawa in West Nusa Tenggara; Kupang bay Timor in East Nusa Tenggara; and Maros in South Sulawesi. The total area is about 7,300 ha.

Research and Development

1. Collection of natural fry

Fry collection experiments had been conducted by the Seafarming Development Centre in Lampung Bay and other locations for the past years. A significant amount of information on species distribution and seasonal fluctuation has been obtained. However, their economical value as seed for fish culture has not been well investigated. Therefore, continuous fry collection from the wild might be an important support activity to verification trials.

2. Culture of food organisms

Experiments on food culture organisms have been conducted in many ways. The technique has been well transferred to the Indonesian scientists. However, it is still necessary to develop techniques for mass culture of food organisms like rotifers, Chlorella, Tetraselmis, Chaetoceros and Skeletonema for mass production of fish fry.

3. Induced spawning

Artificial fertilization of seabass eggs (Lates calcarifer) was conducted successfully by hormone manipulation.

4. Larvae rearing

The recent success in the induced spawning of seabass in hatchery needs to be improved further to obtain higher survival rate of larvae.

5. Feed formulation

Feed plays a vital input in a high-yield culture system. Normally low value trashfish, molluscs and crustaceans can be used as feed if they are available at a reasonable cost. The present high cost of trash fish in some areas makes marine finfish culture uneconomical. Other alternative feed such as formulated semi-moist feed and pelletized feed shall be developed to minimize the use of trash fish. Research institutions shall be encouraged to design effective compounded feed at economically acceptable levels. At the Seafarming Development Centre in Lampung, a series of compounded feeds for finfish culture in floating netcages are being tested.

6. Seaweed culture

Seaweed culture requires a low capital investment but provides a relatively fast turn-over. Its development also favors a majority of residents in the Indonesian fishing communities who are poor and have limited resources. Eucheuma cottonii, a new species of seaweed, has been introduced in Bali and Nusa Tenggara and the initial results seem encouraging. In South Sulawesi, Gracillaria sp is cultured in brackishwater ponds. Eucheuma cottonii and Gracillaria sp are good candidates for marine culture so that efforts should be focused on these species in the near future.

REFERENCES

CHAN, W.L., B. TIENSONGRUSMEE, S. PONTJOPRAWIRO and I. SOEDJARTO (1988) Notes on site selection Seafarming Workshop Report Bandar Lampung, 23 October – 1 November 1985.

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF FISHERIES (1988) Fisheries statistics of Indonesia, 1986. Department of Agriculture, Jakarta, No. 16.

TIENSONGRUSMEE, B., S. PONTJOPRAWIRO and I. SOEDJARWO (1986). Resource map, Seafarming Development Project, INS/81/008/Manual 7,66 pp.

TIENSONGRUSMEE, B., S. PONTJOPRAWIRO (1988). National Seafarming Development Project, INS/81/ 008/Manual 6, 32 pp.

COUNTRY REPORT: REPUBLIC OF KOREA

APPENDIX XI

PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES, RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA

Byung Ha Park

Basic Policy for Development of Seafarming

1. Promote the culture of finfishes and pearl oyster having potentials to give farmers a high income.

2. Expand seafarming area to outer parts of coastal waters.

3. Maintain stable and continuous farming of the technically generalized species such as oyster, arkshell, sea squirt, laver, etc., which are licensed to private farmers for farming, through sound management and reorganization of present culture area located in the inner parts of the coastal waters. The farming of the species mentioned above will be gradually operated as projects of fishing village associations to improve their income.

Seafarming Trends

1. Production

Production from seafarming in Korea has increased steadily during the 1980's from 549,000 MT in 1980 to 940,000 in 1986, a 59 per cent increase. Of the total production in 1986, seaweeds and molluscs shared major position with 55 and 42 per cent, respectively. The rest are finfish (0.3 per cent), crustaceans (0.01 per cent) and other aquatic animals (2.1 per cent). Production of seaweeds increased by 108 per cent from 250,000 MT in 1980 to 520,000 MT in 1986, while that of molluscs rose by 39 per cent from 280,000 MT to 390,000 MT during the same period. Although the production of other aquatic animals, finfishes and crustaceans are negligible, their production increasing markedly year by year. It reached 20,000 MT for other aquatic animals, 3,000 MT for finfishes and 130 MT for crustaceans in 1986.

2. Price

The total production value of seafarming species increased by 300 per cent from US$ 150,479,000 in 1980 to US$ 443,354,000 in 1986. The unit landing price (US$/MT) of some seafarming species groups also rapidly increased during the period: finfishes by 719 per cent (from 635 to 4,566 US$), crustaceans by 1,053 per cent (from 1,922 to 20,241), and molluscs by 291 per cent (from 164 to 477). However, the price of seaweeds has not shown any remarkable change from the level of US$ 400/MT. That of other aquatic animals even decreased (from US$ 2,398 in 1981 to US$ 204 in 1986). The fluctuations in the price of seafarming species are caused not only by increased demand depending upon increment of national income but also price rise and production change in other species.

3. Area of Seafarming Site

The area used for seafarming was 180,016 hectares as of the end of 1986. It was composed of 259 ha (0.1 per cent) for finfish, 39,516 ha (22.0 per cent) for molluscs, 48,429 ha (27.0 per cent) for seaweeds, 2,188 ha (1.2 per cent) for others and 89,516 ha (49.7 per cent) for the First Class Common Fishing ground.

Status of Research on Seafarming

The Fisheries Research and Development Agency (FRDA) is the only national research institution responsible for research and technical development on seafarming including other fisheries areas. The Agency is conducting fundamental research and technical improvement on various mariculture species which include finfishes, molluscs, seaweeds, crustaceans and others. Recent major research activities on aquaculture are as follows.

1. Seed Production

At present, eight hatcheries along the coast of Korea are in operation. Their functions are mass production of seeds of various species and development of techniques and methods of seed production for potentially important species for aquaculture. One more hatchery is under construction, and two being planned. Major species produced are abalone, flounder, sea bream, sea urchin, sea squirt, etc. Total number of seed to be produced in 1988 is projected at 19 million. They are either distributed to growers or released into natural habitats.

2. Finfish Culture

Overwintering of the commercially important culture species of fish is one major problem in the development of finfish farming in Korea. The water temperature during winter can drop below 10°C, except in a few islands and coastal areas located at the southern extremity of the Korean peninsula.

Major research subjects on finfish farming are as follows:

1. Environmental investigation of finfish culture sites.

2. Technical improvement of cultivation.

3. Experiment on artificial feeds.

4. Diagnosis, prevention and treatment of fish diseases.

5. Production of desirable finfish strains through selective breeding and genetics.

3. Mollusc and Seaweed Culture

Research activities for these species emphasize the techniques of proper management of growing areas and measures for controlling diseases and other damages. The culture methods and techniques of molluscs and seaweeds including seed production are already standardized. Major research subjects are as follows:

(1) Molluscs

1. Selective breeding and genetics and oyster, abalone and pearl oysters.

2. Study on disease for topshell.

(2) Seaweeds

1. Selective breeding and genetics on laver and Laminaria.

2. Study on disease for laver and Undaria.

4. Basic Survey on Seafarming for Korean Coastal Waters

(1) Purpose

To develop a nationwide plan for rational and effective development of coastal areas, based on the detailed survey of environment conditions, distribution of flora and fauna, present utilization for fisheries, actual state of fishery activities, production situation and other related factors in the areas.

(2) Survey period

1. 1986 to 1987 : Field study and data analysis.

2. 1987 to 1988 : Compilation and publishing.

(3) Coverage of the survey

1. Depth of water

   Tidal flat and shallow water within 50 m in the coastal areas.

2. Area covered

   10 provinces facing the coast (2 special cities, and 78 countries and cities are included).

(4) Major survey items

1. Aquaculture grounds

   • Availability of culture grounds.

   • Data collection on grounds that are under-utilized.

   • Survey of the potentials of areas for culture.

   • Field investigations on suitability of areas for individual species.

2. Survey for artificial reef establishment.

3. Water quality investigations.

4. Statistics of fisheries in coastal areas.

COUNTRY REPORT: THE PHILIPPINES

APPENDIX XII

PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES, RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Rolando B. Edra

Since the First National Coordinators' Meeting in Bangkok from 27 to 28 October 1987, the following may be added to the progress report on the seafarming activities in research and development in the Philippines.

The training course on seaweed farming under the Regional Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project was successfully conducted. It was a joint program of ASEAN/FAO/UNDP/UP—MSI (University of the Philippines — Marine Science Institute)/Department of Agriculture — Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.

The course was divided into lecture, practicum and field visits to production sites and processing plants. Field culture of Eucheuma and Gracilaria and pond culture of Caulerpa were demonstrated. The course was attended by 2 participants from Indonesia, 3 from Malaysia, 5 from the Philippines, 2 from Thailand, 3 from China, 2 from Republic of Korea, and 1 from India, a total of 18 technicians and farmers.

One significant move at the national level, which could have far-reaching consequences in seafarming development, was the identification of seafarming priorities and the recommendation to elevate seafarming to a high level of priority. This was made by the Task Force on Seafarming and Mariculture Resources during the National Conference on Fisheries Policy and Planning in the Philippines on 16–20 March 1987.

The four-day conference was attended by representatives of all interest groups in the Philippine Fisheries Sector: associations of small fishermen, commercial fisheries, entrepreneurial and corporate aquaculturists, processors and packers of fisheries products, suppliers of boats and fishing equipment, members of the academic sector, representatives of concerned Philippine Government departments, as well as of bilateral and multilateral funding agencies. The seafarming task force identified the following groups of marine resources as having high potential for culture. The potential includes local and foreign markets.

The task force also identified the following urgent needs:

1. Definition of government regulations and supportive legal requisites that would include

   1. zoning of suitable mariculture sites and

   2. granting of concessions;

2. Development/acquisition/transfer of appropriate technologies; and

3. Adequate financing.

The recommendations called on the government to make it a national policy to accord the highest priority to the promotion and development of seafarming of marine species. As an initial step, it was recommended that a high-level body composed of representatives from the private and government sectors be organized to formulate a viable national seafarming programme.

This report also contains the updated data on fish landings by source of production; number of fishfarmer households and areas under production; and total production of finfish by species, mollusc by species, seaweed by species, crustacea by species and miscellaneous species for 1987 as shown in Tables 1 to 7.

To conclude, seafarming in the Philippines continues to offer good income opportunities for small fishermen who are losing or may have lost their present livelihood as a result of the rapid depletion of marine resources. It has been recognized by a national forum that it can help increase the dollar-earning capacity of the nation, provide more food at affordable prices to the growing population, and conserve and regenerate other marine and freshwater resources.

(2) Capture Fisheries

(3) Wild and Cultured
(4) Wild

(3) Wild and Cultured
(4) Wild

(3) Wild and Cultured
(4) Wild

(4) Wild

COUNTRY REPORT: SINGAPORE

APPENDIX XIII

PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES, RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE

Renee Chou

Aquaculture in Singapore started some time in the 1930's, with the introduction from China of shrimp trapping from brackishwater impoundments. At its peak, there were over 1,000 hectares of such “farms”. However, with land reclamation and the acquisition of farms for urban and industrial development, only about 190 ha remain today. In 1987, about 40 metric tonnes (mt) of shrimps were harvested.

Coastal seafarming in Singapore started in 1970 and originated from palisade trap (locally called “Kelong”) activity where fish are captured according to the tide by lift net. While marketable fish were sold, those that have potential value but which were still too small, were stocked into fixed holding netcages suspended from the kelong, or in floating netcages hung from floating wooden frames. The fish were raised to marketable size on trash fish from the kelong.

With the implementation of the Marine Fish Farming Scheme by the Government in March 1981 to encourage fish farming in coastal waters, farmers established more standard and larger floating structures for their netcages. Fry of single fish species were stocked, and trash fish purchased as feed.

Since the implementation of this Scheme, there has been wide interest in fish culture in floating netcage systems. Most of aquaculture production is now through seafarming, with growth of 6 per cent per annum over the last four years of 1984–87. It is envisaged that by 1995, at full utilization of the 100 ha and 220 ha available sea area for seafarming in coastal and offshore waters respectively, production should reach 9,000 mt per annum, with 2,000 mt finfish, 2,000 mt shrimp and 5,000 mt mussel and crab.

Current Status and Progress of Seafarming Activities

Current Status

There are at present 70 floating fish farms covering 35 out of the 100 hectares of the available coastal seafarming area in Singapore. The farms are located in the 4 designated areas off Pulau Ubin, Serangoon and Ponggol (East Johor Strait) and Lim Chu Kang (West Johor Strait) (Fig. 1). Most of the floating farms are located in the Pulau Ubin and Lim Bhu Kang areas.

The total net annual productivity of the East Johor Strait where about two-thirds of the farms are located is 17,000 mt of carbon, giving a possible sustainable yield of 680 mt of fish or 62,000 mt of green mussel (Perna viridis) yearly. About 1,400 mt of fish were caught in 1987 by the 31 palisade traps in the Johor Straits. Thirty-five metric tonnes of mussel were produced in the East Johor Strait or 3.4 per cent of the 1,025 mt of mussel harvested in 1987 for both East and West Johor Strait. Most of the mussel is produced in the West Johor Strait, being 990 mt or 96.6 per cent of total mussel production. The natural yield of mussel from the Johor Straits has not been assessed. The production of mussel from culture activity in the East Johor Strait alone is however less than 1 per cent the exploitable potential, and can certainly be increased with demand.

In 1987, the 1,825.2 mt from seafarming production was 23.2 per cent (424 mt) finfish, being mainly seabass (Lates calcarifer) (219.4 mt, 12.0 per cent groupers (Epinephelus tauvina, Plectopomus maculatus, Cromileptis altivelis) (129 mt., 7.1 per cent), snapper (Lutjanus johni, L. malabaricus) 935 mt, 1.9 per cent), and other fish species (yellowfin jack, Caranx ignobilis, golden travally, Gnathonodon speciocus, bream, Acnathopagrus sp., siganids, Siganus canaliculatus, S. guttatus) (40.2 mt, 2.2 per cent); and 80.9 per cent (1,477 mt) shellfish, mainly green mussels (P. viridis) (1,025 mt, 56.2 per cent), mangrove crab (Scylla serrata) (330 mt, 18.1 per cent), Banana shrimp (Penaeus merguiensis) (30.3 mt, 1.7 per cent) and spiny lobster (Panilurus polyphagus) (16.3 mt, 0.9 per cent).

Progress

Seafarming production increased from negligible in 1970 to 1,027 mt in 1982 and 1,825.2 mt in 1987 (Table 1). This represented 0 (1970) to 5.71 per cent (1982) to 12.1 per cent (1987) of the local production and 0, 1.12, 1.5 per cent of total fish supply, respectively.

In 1982, seafarming production was 1,027 mt, being mostly shellfish (93.5 per cent), 71.7 per cent of which was mussel (Perna viridis) and 6.5 per cent finfish (Table 2). The production figure for this activity has since replaced and taken over the production from traditional freshwater ponds and brackishwater prawn trapping impoundments. A total of 1,825.2 mt was produced through seafarming.

Seabass (Lates calcarifer) and other finfish production in 1987 increased from 89.5 mt and 5.3 mt 1982, to 219.4 mt and 40.2 mt respectively in 1987. This represents a percentage increase from 8.72 per cent of the total seafarming production in 1982 to 12.02 per cent in 1987 for seabass, and 0.52 per cent to 2.20 per cent for other finfish. Grouper (Epinephelus tauvina) production showed a declining trend possibly because of difficulty in obtaining fingerlings and also their high cost (Table 2).

Mangrove crab (Scylla serrata) production increased from 10.8 mt in 1982 to 330 mt in 1987. This reflects the lucrative nature of its culture which is actually the fattening of imported adults. Although the production of mussel has been on the increase (736 mt in 1982 to 1,025 mt in 1987), its proportion to total seafarming production shows a decline (71.67 per cent in 1982 and 56.16 per cent in 1987) (Table 2).

The production in 1987 from freshwater was 157.1 mt and 75.7 mt from brackishwater impoundments, being mainly Banana shrimp (Penaeus merguiensis).

The total aquaculture production in 1987 was 2,058 mt or 13.4 per cent or the local fish production of 15,310 mt (Table 1). Of this, 1,900.9 mt (92.4 per cent) was derived from seafarming and brackishwater aquaculture, and the remaining 157.1 mt (7.6 per cent) from freshwater aquaculture. The figures show an increase of 535.5 mt or 41.5 per cent in seafarming production over the 1986 figure of 1,289.7 mt, and of 798.2 mt or 77.7 per cent over the seafarming production figure of 1,027 mt in 1982. There is also an increase in total aquaculture production over local fish production from 7.7 per cent in 1986 to 13.4 per cent in 1987 (Table 1).

Total fish supply in 1987 was 126,000 mt, of which 98.4 per cent (123,942 mt) was chilled and frozen marine foodfish. The remaining 1.63 per cent (2,058 mt) was farmed, mainly marine foodfish. Seafarming production of 1,825.2 mt in 1987 was 1.5 per cent of the total fish supply in 1987, compared with 1.2 per cent in 1986.

There is an increasing trend in seafarming production. Its higher proportion of 11.9 per cent to local production in 1987 compared with 6.4 per cent in 1986 reflects the increase in mariculture activity but is also due to the lower figure for local landings for 1987. It is envisaged that aquaculture production will account for about 10 per cent of total fish supply in 1995, with 10,000 to 14,000 mt being produced annually.

Seafarming Activity

Current Status

The farming system and its location

The netcage system used in Singapore for seafarming is a simple wooden structure kept afloat by plastic buoys. Each farm is about 1,500 m², anchored within a water space of 5,000 m². Netcages of various dimensions are suspended from the farm structure for fish or crustacean culture.

Farms are located in coastal sheltered waters of 8–10 m depth at low tide. Water exchange is dependent on tidal movement. Netcages are cleaned of biofouling at least once a month.

Finfish Culture

Marine foodfish cultured in floating farms are held in netcage units, usually 3m × 3m 2–3m (depth) or 5m × 5m × 2–3m (depth). The popular species reared are finfish, such as groupers, seabass, snappers, siganids, and crustaceans such as the mangrove crab, Banana shrimp and spiny lobster. A farm may raise several types.

The fingerlings of marine foodfish, mainly those of seabass and grouper are presently mostly purchased from Thailand and the Philippines, although some seabass fingerlings are supplied by the local hatcheries. The fish are stocked initially at 100–150/m²l (67–100/m³) in small netcages (2 × 2 × 2m, 1.5m submerged depth or 3 × 3 × 2m, 1.5m submerged depth) when the fish are 7.5–10 cm Total Length (TL); then at 40/m² (16/m³) in larger netcages (5 × 5 × 3m, 2.5m submerged depth) when fish have attained 12.5–15 cm TL. At harvest, market-sized fish are 600–800 (TL 30–50 cm).

Marine foodfish are fed trashfish at 3–10 per cent body weight daily depending on their growth stage. Fingerlings of 50 g are fed at 10 per cent, and 100g, 300 g, and 500 g-fish at 8, 3–5 and 3 per cent respectively. Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) is around 4.5:1. Some farmers produce practical semi-moist feeds that are either totally from dry ingredients, or that are combinations of dry ingredients and natural food, usually minced trashfish. The FCR is around 1.8–2:1 on dry basis.

The most common disease encountered in cultured marine foodfish is infestation by protozoan parasite, usually the ciliate Cryptocaryon irritans. On-farm treatment is a formalin bath at 200 ppm for half to one hour depending on fish condition and the infestation level. This is done in canvas bags.

Vibriosis, caused by Vibrio bacteria, (V. parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus), is a common problem and which usually occurs as a secondary infection in fish which have been stressed as a result of parasite infestation, handling or transportation. Curtailment of the disease in its early stages is by oral therapy, where the feed is mixed with various drugs or chemicals. Bath treatments in canvas bags will be attempted if fish are off-feed.

Finfish annual production is about 10–15 mt/0.5 ha farm area. This is equivalent to 80 mt/ha productive area/annum, and 20–25 times the production rate of freshwater fish polyculture systems.

The limited availability and high cost of fingerlings of popular fish species like groupers, snappers and siganids are major constraints in intensive fish culture. Seabass is presently the only marine foodfish which can be commercially produced.

Other constraints are the difficulty of obtaining local farm labour and the limited demand for live fish in local restaurants. The Government allows employment of professional foreign labour and encourages farming that involves a higher level of technology.

Crustacean Culture

Shrimp is more commonly cultured in earthen ponds, but they can also be cultured in raceways and floating netcages.

Shrimp stocking density in floating netcages ranges from 300–600/m², and take 5 months to grow from Postlarva Day 25 to marketable weight of 12g. About 2 kg/m² yield is obtained per cycle.

Shrimp are fed commercially available formulated dry feeds which are either imported or produced locally, or even trashfish. Yield is 50 mt/ha productive area/annum, which is about 10 times the yield of conventional culture in ponds.

In intensive shrimp farming, Vibrio spp. infect the haemolymph while chitinoclastic bacteria cause “burn-spot disease” of the exoskeleton. Hepatopancreas Parvo Virus (HPV) causes lesions in the hepatopancreas of the shrimp. The first may be curtailed by oral therapy, while there is no direct treatment for the other two. Antibiotic baths may prevent secondary bacterial infection.

Other common diseases of shrimp are muscle necrosis likely to result from severe stress from overcrowding and changes in the environment. Other diseases encountered are white pleura disease of unknown origin and Leucothrix and Zoothamnium infestations which are bacterial and protozoan in origin, respectively.

There is no serious constraint to the production of shrimp in Singapore. It has considerable potential in the Republic as they can be farmed intensively. There is tremendous local demand for shrimp.

Mangrove crab is not farmed in the strict sense. They are imported as adults and held in floating wire cages of 2.5 m × 1.5 m × 1.5 m for shell-hardening and fattening for two weeks, after which they are sold.

Mangrove crab is stocked at 9 kg/m³ or about 35–40 crabs/m³ (10/m²). There is only a slight weight increase during the fattening period. The crabs are fed trashfish.

Spiny lobster is cultured in floating netcages as for finfish. Wild-caught lobster young of mean weight 100 g are stocked at about 15/m³ (30/m²) and take 3–4 months to grow to marketable weight of 250–300 g. Lobster are fed trashfish and mussel.

Mollusc culture

Green mussels are the only mollusc cultured in Singapore. The mussels are farmed on ropes suspended from wooden rafts which are usually rectangular, with the long axis parallel to the direction of the tidal current. Ropes on which green mussel is cultured are 3.5–4.5m, with 2–3m immersed and the remainder for tying to the raft. They are suspended 4 to a square metre, and kept about 2m off the sea bottom.

Seed is obtained from natural spatfall. There is no attempt at broodstock management except through retention of a percentage of the on-farm grow-out population as broodstock.

Spats are usually collected on 2m-long strips of old netting or nylon ropes. A settlement of 10 million spats, (0.5 g/spat) for each strip of rope/netting may be expected during a good spatfall.

No thinning is practiced commercially as this has been found to be too time-consuming and labour-intensive to the farmers. The spats are instead allowed to thin out naturally. This however results in wasteful loss of the spats which drop off. An estimated 10–15 per cent of spats attain market size after 6–8 months. This method of farming is applicable in good spatfall areas.

Harvesting of mussel is by manually lifting the culture ropes. This process can be mechanised if required.

Mussels are filter feeders, and feed on plankton from the sea. At the Lim Chu Kang area, where most of the mussels are farmed, plankton is abundant throughout the year.

No serious disease or parasites have been observed. However, water stagnation in a farming area can lead to low dissolved oxygen, and persistent rainfall, to lowered salinity. This may at times cause localised high mortality.

Each mussel rope can produce 40 kg marketable sized mussels of 6–8 cm (shell length) 6–8 months from spat settlement. The yield is about 1,800 mt shell-on mussels/ha/annum.

The main constraint to production is not in farming but in the low consumer demand for the product.

Progress

The farming system and its location

The design of the floating netcage system has improved since its inception in 1970 when fish culture was done on ad hoc using crudely constructed floating frames of various dimensions and modules. By 1980, Primary Production Department's Experimental Fish Farm of 32 interlocking 5 m × 5 m frames was a model for farmers to base their farm designs on.

Farmers have since made modifications and improvement to suit their needs. An example is the inclusion of smaller frames (3 m × 3 m or 2 m × 2 m) or even rectangular (6 m × 3 m) ones, and the use of various types of floatation units. Floatation units, previously disused oil drums or plastic containers have been replaced by more standard units now commercially available and designed for floating farms. The use of plastic drums is however still being retained at some of the farms as this is a relatively cheap alternative when such drums are available. Netcages are cleaned at the farm by high pressure seawater jets, eliminating the need for farmers to take their netcages to shore for cleaning.

Some floating farms have also considered combining production activity with the production of shrimp or seabass fry. The latter is done in the floating hatchery system which takes advantage of the sea environment for water intake. Such floating hatcheries are capable of producing fish (seabass) or shrimp (Banana shrimp) fry onfarm and also live food micro-organisms.

Deep netcages are not presently used since all the floating farms are anchored in relatively shallow and sheltered waters. However there will be a need to use deep netcages to take advantage of open waters, of water space and of the active swimming behaviour of fish species like the seabass and snappers. Semi-submersible farming systems which are designed for open water use because of their ability to withstand strong wave action, rotational netcages which minimise biofouling and cleaning, and floating raceways, are some of the other seafarming systems being considered.

Finfish culture

Finfish culture in floating netcages has progressed from the early days when farmers collected assorted fish of various sizes from fishermen for stocking into netcages suspended from small floating wooden frames to the present day floating farm system comprising 32 or more interlocking wooden frames from which are suspended standard-sized netcages. These netcages contain single fish species which are even-sized and purchased from commercial hatcheries in the case of seabass and shrimp.

A commercial land-based seabass hatchery will be established by end 1988 to provide local seabass fry. This should reduce the present dependence on imported fingerlings which are costly and whose supply is uncertain, and ensure better control of quality and sanitization. Some farmers have incorporated hatchery operation at their farm to produce their own seabass or shrimp seeds. This tendency is likely as the industry matures, although farms may become more specialised, either producing fry alone or market-sized fish.

The use of trashfish, although still the general practice, poses supply, storage and quality problems to farmers. Some farmers are already relying on formulated or partially formulated practical semi-moist feeds throughout the year, and some use this feed during the monsoon seasons when trashfish supply is limited. Formulated feeds that suit the nutritional needs of the various farmed species and their life stages, and which can be disseminated in dry pelleted form by automated feeding systems will be the norm in future, especially for large-scale farming. Such feeds are easy to store and of more consistent quality.

Although present farm operations are largely manual, it is envisaged that such procedures will become mechanised and automated to save on labour, especially in large-scale farming. Equipment such as those for netcage-changing, cleaning and harvesting and automatic feeders are likely to be used.

Experience, better management practices, sanitization and prophylaxis procedures established in recent years have made it easier for farmers to recognise the common diseases and treat their fish on-farm. The Primary Production Department also extends its assistance to farmers as and when required.

New fish species with good market potential are being tested for farming. They are the Tiger grouper (Epinephelus microdon) and marine red tilapia hybrid (Oreochromis niloticus).

Crustacean culture

Although it is possible to raise shrimp in floating netcages, it is likely that its intensive culture will mostly be in land-based systems like lined ponds and raceways while finfish, suited to the floating system, will continue to be produced through seafarming.

The use of trashfish feed in shrimp farming has been partially replaced by commercial dry feed that is economical and convenient to use. Local feed formulations that satisfy the requirement of the popularly farmed Banana shrimp are expected to be available in the future.

Mangrove crab culture has progressed from incidental farming into a contracted activity for some farmers who arrange to receive and fatten the animals for the local market according to the seasons of availability. This arrangement also guarantees the sale of the produce at the best possible time.

Mollusc culture

Mussel farming will include both producing the animal as a food product and as a high quality raw material for shrimp and fish feeds.

There are now plans for a commercial farm to undertake the latter.

Current Status and Progress of Seafarming Research and Development

Current Status

The farming system and its location

The Primary Production Department has, in collaboration with the Nanyang Technological Institute, developed a mechanised netcage hauler, presently used at its experimental fish farm. Floatation units are encased in cheap plastic bags to minimise maintenance through periodic changes. The Department has also conducted field trials on the use of antifouling paint for netcages. Netcages can last for as long as two months without cleaning. Observations have also been made on the use of lobsters and siganids which feed on biofouling organisms as a natural means of reducing biofouling organisms.

Seafarming systems other than the wooden structure described are being considered by the Department. The Japanese modular aluminium frame floating cage system was set up this year (1988) for testing the feasibility of culturing fish in deep netcages. This system is easier to maintain since aluminium has a longer lifespan and the floatation units are encased and can be easily maintained by changing the canvas cover. The modular and standard assembly feature of the structure will make it convenient for farmers to plan and assemble the farm.

Finfish culture

The Department has to date undertaken various field trials to verify farming protocol, especially on stocking density, thinning and trashfish feeding.

Recent trials on the use of deep netcages, automatic feeding, dry pelleted and formulated dry feed in intensive finfish culture have shown that fish performance is improved with this system.

The Department has an on-going project on the development of grower feeds for the various fish species farmed. The development of seabass feed is conducted in collaboration with the Government of France at the Centre Oceanologique du Pacifique in Tahiti, and its commercial production with a local feedmill.

The constraint to large-scale fish or shrimp fry production is the large tank facilities required for producing rotifers and green alga (Chlorella) for feeding the larvae. Government research and development looks to the use of microparticulate feeds (commercially available or devloped) by fish or shrimp fry.

The Department also completed studies into the establishment and operation of the floating hatchery which can be either incorporated as part of the fish farm or as a specialised floating farm producing only fish fry.

Fish sanitization studies have shown that the survival of imported fish fingerlings can be improved by 30 per cent after arrival. The method for on-farm treatment of fish in canvas bags has been verified and introduced to farmers. The information from case studies conducted and experience accumulated over the years on the commonly encountered fish diseases and their treatment have established a reference base for diagnostic services.

Crustacean culture

The Department has completed studies into the culture of Banana shrimp in floating netcages and verified that yield is 2 kg/m² after 5 months from stocking at Postlarva Day 25.

Most of the research and development done in intensive shrimp farming has been with land-based facilities such as in lined ponds and raceway systems.

The development of feeds for Penaeid shrimps that are of economic importance in Singapore (eg. the Banana shrimp, Penaeus merguiensis, Tiger shrimp, P. monodon, and Kuruma shrimp, P. japonicus) is undertaken as a joint project between the Department and a commercial company in Singapore.

Shrimp diseases that are common under intensive stocking conditions, have been studied mainly for the raceway system.

A constraint to shrimp breeding is the dependence on wild-caught spawners. The Department has initiated a collaborative programme with the National University of Singapore to close the spawning cycle of the Tiger and Banana shrimps (Penaeus monodon and P. merguiensis).

Shrimp breeding has been demonstrated to be feasible in floating hatcheries.

Mollusc culture

The Department established the farming method for mussels and this has been taken up by the commercial sector. Other techniques that have been verified are shore-based and on-farm depuration using ultra violet and post-harvest.

In mussel farming, it has been observed that nylon ropes and netting are unsuitable as spat collectors in poor spatfall areas. Coconut coir has been found to be better as spat collectors. However, farmers still prefer the cheaper former alternative as spatfall is abundant in the West Johor Strait where most of the mussels are farmed. Government research effort has also come up with the poly-coco rope which combines both spat collection with grow-out. The coconut coir sections attract the spat while grow-out is on polyethylene main portion.

Progress

The farming structure and its location

Most of the research and development in seafarming structures has been directed at the verification of operations of the floating netcage system. More recently, this has progressed to the aluminium modular system and deep netcages. In future, other systems like the rotational cage, semi-submersible large-scale farming system for open-water fish farming and floating raceways will be tested.

Research and development has also progressed from the verification of various manual operations like netcage changing and fish feeding to feasibility trials on mechanization.

Todate, fish farming trials have pertained to floating netcage farms that are located in sheltered coastal waters. Trials on open-water farms are expected to be conducted in the future and in collaboration with commercial companies.

Finfish culture

Research and development efforts in finfish culture have progressed from basic farming like growth monitoring and feeding to those that would maximise fish production and reduce labour cost. Examples are stocking density trials with grouper and seabass, the use of automatic feeders and dry feeds, trials on controlling biofouling, and on the use of deep netcages.

All cultured fish are presently fed trashfish. There has been a progression towards lesser reliance on natural feed whose availability and quality are uncertain and which are labour intensive to disseminate. The use of trashfish can also predispose fish to disease. The Department has undertaken a project on the development of dry formulated feeds for the economically important marine fish species with a view to establishing commercially-viable formulations for transfer to the commercial sector. At the same time it is looking into the establishment of feeding protocol for automated feeding under floating netcage conditions.

It is expected that research and development efforts in fish culture will be directed towards further verification of automated and mechanised farming operations and on the assessment of new species performance in the floating netcage system. Research and development will also focus on the confirmation of intensive fish culture in the new farming systems.

Crustacean culture

Shrimp culture may also be expected to be also done under intensive conditions in land-based systems, where yield has been demonstrated to be high, and culture commercially feasible.

There is now a better appreciation of the various diseases that afflict shrimp cultured under intensive conditions, and of their control.

Shrimp in floating netcages are fed on commercially available dry pelleted feed in feeding trays. This is more efficient than feeding them minced trash fish which deteriorates easily.

The closing of the shrimp breeding cycle under controlled conditions would alleviate the present dependence on wild-caught spawners.

Other crustaceans like the mangrove crab and lobster, previously not cultured are relatively recent introductions to the floating netcage system. Survival and growth results are encouraging.

Mollusc culture

The early practice of collecting mussels from the wild has progressed, through dissemination of research and development results, into an integrated practice where the mussel is farmed, harvested and prepared by blanching and shucking on-site.

Post-harvest and mussel depuration methodology has been established for taking up by the commercial sector.

Mussels are now considered as a source of high quality feedstuff besides a food item.

Conclusion and summary

Seafarming in Singapore is presently the intensive culture of economically important marine food fish and shellfish species in floating systems. The operation is still largely manual and trashfish is the principal feed used.

Seafarming has progressed from a tentative and uncoordinated activity into an industry, with the application of specific and verified farming protocols.

The general progress in seafarming research and development is towards the application of higher technology methods in farm management to maximise productivity and yield, save on labour, ensure consistently high product quality, and reduce dependence on natural feed such as trash fish.

The feasibility of alternative seafarming systems that would require minimal maintenance.

Tables 1 and 2 show Singapore's fishery and seafarming statistics from 1982–1987.

REFERENCE

Cheong, L., 1988. Direction of aquaculture in Singapore. Paper presented at Seafood Asia '88, 8–11 Sep. 88, Singapore. 8pp. Publ. Academic Associates Pte. Ltd, Singapore.

*1 Imported chilled and marine foodfish, landings of locally-registered inshore and offshore fishing vessels and local aquacul-ture production.

*2 Landings of locally-registered inshore and offshore fishing vessels and local aquaculture production.

*3 Production from brackishwater ponds (Banana shrimp, Penaeus merguiensis)

*4 Production from floating fish farms

*5 Production from freshwater ponds

Finfish

Seabass (Lates calcarifer)
Groupers, spotted, red, polka-dot (Epinephelus tauvina, Plectopomus maculatus, Cromileptis altivelis)
(Lutjanus johni, L. malabaricus)
Other fish species, yellowfin jack, golden trevally, bream, rabbitfish (Caranx ignobilis, Gnathonodon speciosus, Acanthopaorus sp.,
Siganus canaliculatus, S. guttaus)

Shellfish:

Crustaceans

Banana shrimp (Penaeus merguiensis)
Mangrove crab (Scylla serrata)
Spiry lobster (Panilurus polyphagus)

Molluscs

Green mussel (Perna viridis)

Figure 1. Distribution of Marine Floating Fish in Singapore

COUNTRY REPORT: THAILAND

APPENDIX XIV

PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES, RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT IN THAILAND

Wiset Chomdej and Siri Tookwinas

Thailand has a total coastline, both on the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea, of approximately 2,600 km. The mangrove forest area has been estimated to be 1,758.6 square kilometres and the mud flats to be over 1,600 square kilometres. The coastal area has long been explored for suitable coastal aquaculture and sea farming sites and the activities have recently expanded rapidly in Thailand.

Culture Species

The major species of sea farming and coastal aquaculture in Thailand are as follows:

Progress of Activities in Seafarming

Seafarming has been developing very rapidly. This is due to the increasing demand for export to Europe, North America and Japan. Pen culture of prawn (P. monodon) has been developed since 1987. Research activities have been conducted on environmental management in pen culture of prawn. The culture techniques are as follows:

1. Site selection

Water salinity should range from 10–12 ppt year round.

Location should be near a rivermouth or mangrove area. The culture bed is soft mud which is considered to be a suitable habitat for tiger prawn. The culture period should be timed to avoid fresh water flooding into the culture area.

2. Nursing period

Fry of tiger prawn (P₁₅ – P₂₀) are nursed in cages for one month. The stocking density is around 5,000 fry per cage (1.5 × 2.0 × 1.5 m). Artificial feed, mixed with trash fish, is given three times a day. After 30 days, the size will be about 1.5 – 2.0 inches. Survival rate should be from 50–70 per cent.

3. Culture techniques

The pen for tiger prawn culture is rectangular and 6.0 × 6.0 × 6.0 m. The stocking density of 1.5–2.0 inch fry is about 3,000–3,500 per pen, approximately 100 pcs per sq m.

Artificial feed mixed with trash fish should be given about 5 times a day. The stock should be checked weekly in order to estimate survival rate and estimate the amount of feed. An air pump might be applied in order to increase oxygen supply during the early morning period.

The culture period is 3–4 months, by which time size of prawn will be 30–40 pcs per kg. The survival rate should be approximately 80–90 per cent.

The investment cost is about 12,000 baht in pen. The production can be 100 kg/pen for an estimated gross income of around 20,000 baht.

Seafarming Production

From the fisheries statistics of 1986, the total quantity and value from marine production was about 2,348,572 tons and 18,877.4 million baht, respectively. The production from marine capture was 2,309,408 tons. Marine culture yielded 39,092 tons. The total production has been gradually increasing since 1977 (Table 1).

The production in 1986 from seafarming was 928 tons of fish and 18,875 tons of mollusc (Table 2 and 3). Production from shrimp culture was around 19,289 tons (Table 4).

APPENDIX TABLES

COUNTRY REPORT: THAILAND

APPENDIX XV

Training and demonstration courses indicating number and type of participants by country, 1988

* = 1 technician + 2 farmers.

APPENDIX XVI

Training and demonstration courses indicating number of trainees by funding source and course

*          =   Bay of Bengal Project.
**       =   1 from the Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute; 2 from Marine Fisheries Project.
***     =   Host country.
****   =   Private