STATUS OF PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF
SEAWEEDS IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA

Yong Gun Gong

National Fisheries Research
& Development Agency
National Fisheries Administration
Republic of Korea

1. General Information on the Status of Production and Utilization

1.1 General Situation

1. The total production of seaweeds in 1988 was 483,033 MT (wet weight) and total domestic consumption was 205,820 MT. In 1988, 34,619 MT of dried seaweeds were exported, mostly in dried form and some were salted. The importing countries were mainly Japan and U.S.A.

   On the other hand, in 1988, 3,090 MT of dried seaweeds were imported from Japan and U.S.A. most of which were also dried and some were salted.

2. The culture production of seaweeds in 1988 was 441,569 MT which natural production was 41,454 MT. The total seaweed farming area was estimated at 68,045 ha.

3. The common methods of seaweed cultivation are shown in table 1.

   Table 1.

   Culture type	Species	Installation
   		Scale of installation	Installation ratio to ground area
   Stick method	Porphyra  Monostroma	> 10,000 sticks/ha	20–25%
   Bamboo blind or net with poles	Porphyra Monostroma	1 set (1.8×40 m)/100 m2	20–25%
   Floating-net method	Porphyra	1 set (1.8×40 m)	20–25%
   Long-line	Undaria	1 set (100 m)	5–10%
   hanging method	Laminaria Hizikia

   
   

4. Korea has wide shallow sea areas and highly suitable intertidal zones for seaweed culture. The total culturable area is estimated at 126,961 ha. The developed area for seaweed culture is now 48,533 ha.
   To increase fisheries resources, including seaweed, the government has installed artificial reefs on an area of 24,067 ha, corresponding to 30% of the total area.
   Seaweeds have been the primary species for marine culture in the 1980s. The major species are Porphyra, Undaria, Laminaria, Hizikia and Monostroma.

5. For a long time, the Korean people have used seaweed for human food. Laminaria and Undaria are eaten as fresh materials or boiled like a vegetable, used as soup stock, or as seasoning for rice dishes. Porphyra is chopped into small pieces and dried into flat sheets which are used in a wide variety of dishes. Recently, private companies and the government have development new food products. They are developing the instant foods by using a Porphyra and Undaria mixture and developing a seaweed meal.

1.2 Review of economic species

1. The economic species being gathered are Porphyra, Undaria, Laminaria, Hizikia, Monostroma, Gelidium, Sargassum, Gracilaria, Pachymeniopsis and Codium, etc. Of the above species, Porphyra, Undaria, Laminaria, Hizikia, Monostroma, Gelidium are cultured and the species of commercial scale cultivation are Porphyra, Undaria and Laminaria.

1.3 The total seaweed production statistics from 1985 to 1988

Year: 1986

Year: 1987

Year: 1988

F = Fresh;   SP = Semi-Processed;   P = Processed.

Year: 1986.

F = Fresh;   SP = Semi-Processed;   P = Processed.

Year: 1987.

F = Fresh;   SP = Semi-Processed;   P = Processed.

Year: 1988.

F = Fresh;   SP = Semi-Processed;   P = Processed.

2. Information on Production Systems

2.1 Scales of Production

• Porphyra. Most of the Porphyra culture area are less than 20 ha and yielded 360 kg (1,200 bundles) per ha. There is a big company engaged in Porphyra culture in Korea, the Sam Heung Fisheries Ltd located in Pusan. The company has 821 ha of culture area with an annual production of 135 MT (450,000 bundles).

• Undaria Most of the Undaria culture areas are less than 20 ha and yield 27 MT/ha.

• Laminaria. Most of the Laminaria culture areas are also less than 20 ha and the yield is similar to that of Undaria culture.

• Spirulina and Dunaliella. No production.

2.2 The culture area for each method

• Species and culture methods:

  Table 5. Species and culture methods.

  Species	Culture methods	Culture area (ha)
  Porphyra	Fixed type	36,432
  	Floating net culture	14,520
  Undaria	Long-line	11,369
  Laminaria	Long-line	50
  Hizikia	Long-line	314
  Honostroma	Fixed type	302
  Gelidium	Bottom (stones)	12

  
  

• Species gathered from natural stock:

1. Gathered from wild by diving boat or women divers are Porphyra, Undaria, Laminaria, Hizikia, Gracilaria, Pachymeniopsis, Sargassum, Monostroma, Codium and Gelidium.

2. Gathered on the shores after being washed up by strong waves: Sargassum and Gelidium.

3. Micro-algae: No production.

3. Economics of Production

4. Processing and Utilization

4.1 The Status of Processing

Agar

The agar industry in Korea dates back to 1926 and has been one of leading export items since then. Natural agar production is largely influenced by weather and other natural conditions that it is impossible to extend the industry to areas lacking the suitable natural conditions. The operation of natural agar plants is limited to three or four months when the temperatures average 2–5 degrees below zero. Industrial agar production, with refrigerator and other machinery for freezing, defreezing, drying and other devices, is possible without seasonal restrictions. However, a shortage of raw material is seriously affecting the industry. Ninety percent of production is in the form of agar strip, the rest in powdered form.

Carrageenan

A few years ago, carrageenan production was based on Chondrus and Gigartina as raw materials and some of the products were exported to the industrialized countries. At present, the export of Chondrus and Gigartina has decreased because of the impact of Eucheuma farming in the Philippines. The carrageenan industry of Korea, thus, appears to have sufficient raw material to allow for farther expansion from the present.

Alginates

It is also estimated that some 100 tons of alginate per year was exported to Japan during 1971–1973. But since 1974, the production has been discontinued, while the import of alginate has increased.

4.2 The Number and Location of Processing Plants, Products, Species, Production Capacity.

Agar plants

Seaweed meal

4.3 Status of Utilization

4.3.1 Food Utilization of Raw Products

4.3.2 Utilization of Processed Products

Agar

1. Food
   • Raw: dishes (Chinese food)
   • Transformed: confectionery, milk products, brewing
2. Industrial
   • Clothing: textile
   • Paints: water, heat, cold proofing
   • Prints: agar plate printing

3. Pharmacological: pesticides

4. Medical: surgery bandages, dental scaling, micro-organism culture media

Alginate

1. Food: milk products, beverage, confectionery

2. Cosmetics: soap, facial cream, beauty wash

3. Medical: dental scaling, ointments

4. Treatment of hard or waste water

Carrageenan

1. Food: milk products, confectionery

2. Cosmetics: the same as alginates

4.3.3 In the International Market

5. Marketing of Seaweeds and Seaweeds Products

The marketing of edible and industrial seaweeds is through the local cooperatives which have branches in the South coast region where most the collection and cultivation is done. The local cooperatives decide on grades and prices after consultation with the National Federation of cooperatives in Seoul. Some are sold by direct sale and some by auction. Some of the buyers package the seaweed for the domestic and export markets. There are other exporters who simply buy from these primary processors and re-sell for export.

5.1 Local Marketing System

• Porphyra (see figure 1)

• Undaria (see figure 2)

5.2 International

- Export

Countries: Mainly Japan, America etc. and to other 30 countries. Form: dried, salted, agar, seasoned and fresh.

- Imports

Countries: Mainly Japan, Philippines, France, etc. and 15 other countries.
Form: dried, salted, agar, seasoned, fresh.

Figure 1. Local marketing system for Porphyra.

Figure 2. Local marketing system for Undaria

6. Problems and Needs

- Porphyra culture industry

Recently, the Porphyra culture industry of Korea has shown a remarkable increase in production, as a result of technical developments such as artificial seedling, availability of culture nets made of synthetic fibers, floating net culture system, and improved culture species (such as Porphyra tenera form, Porphyra yezoensis). Still, production is unstable because of variations in the marine environment, along with deficiency in cold storage system for the storage of nursery nets. On the other hand, the expansion of culture area has increased the production.

Manual harvesting and drying have been replaced by mechanical means. Therefore the expenditure for purchasing of machine as well as the equipment for the culture structure has inevitably raised the cost of the final product. The price is being kept at US$ 4.3 to 5.7 per bundle, or US$ 17 per kg of dried products. The processors are faced with the problem of how to keep the price steady and how to lower the basic cost without affecting the culturist, through the development of various products at a low cost.

- Undaria culture industry

Undaria is the most productive cultured species in the shallow coastal areas in Korea. Although the total production reached 289,000 tons in 1988, the income of the culturists has decreased due to the stagnation in price.

The disease caused by Harpacticoida, arising from the intensive cultivation, is now a serious problem. The decrease in yield was estimated at about 20%, which is a severe decline. The reason for this big decrease is that the disease of the fronds occurs in March, when the harvest of good quality fronds reaches its peak.

There are no special steps that can be taken to avoid this damage. The preventive measure is to (1) control all culture processes thoroughly, (2) prevent intensive culture, and (3) keep the marine environment free from pollution, etc. On the other hand, as the processed products of Undaria are consumed only as soup, price is limited in the domestic market. Consequently from now on, in order to increase the consumption in the domestic market, more processed products should be developed such as Undaria tea, powdered products, seasoned products, fish pasted product, Undaria noodles and others.

8. Research and Development: Activities and Capability

8.1 Seaweed Research Organizations

8.2 Training and information exchange

• NFRDA had 3 times the seaweed (Porphyra culture) training courses with the researchers of Nantes Institute in France.

• Technical information exchange: none.

STATUS OF PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION
OF SEAWEEDS IN MALAYSIA

P.S. Choo

Fisheries Research Institute
Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture
11700 Penang, Malaysia

1. Introduction

Although Malaysia has an extensive coastline and coastal shelf that supports a prolific growth of many species of seaweeds, the production of seaweeds gathered from the wild is almost negligible. This production is limited to collections by isolated fishermen who then sell the seaweed or prepare them for home consumption.

Studies by Doty (1977) and Doty and Fisher (1987) had indicated great potential for the culture of seaweeds in Malaysia. Experimental culture of seaweed have been carried out by the Fisheries Research Institute, Glugor, Penang since 1983. Up to now, there is still no commercial production of seaweed in Peninsular Malaysia. In East Malaysia, research on Eucheuma culture was initiated in Semporna, Sabah in 1986 (Arman Shah Ambo Dalli, 1988). Between January and July 1990, 80 tons of dried Eucheuma was exported to Denmark (Wong, pers. comm.).

2. Economic Species

Phang (1984) listed 14 species of seaweeds in Malaysia belonging to the genera Agardhiela, Corallopsis, Gelidium, Gelidiopsis, Gracilaria, Grateloupia, Laurencia and Padina as agar producers, 4 species of Eucheuma as carrageenan producers and 7 species belonging to the genera of Colpomenia, Hormophysa, Hydroclathrus, Padina and Sargassum as alginic acid producers.

Seaweeds gathered from the wild are consumed locally in small amounts as salads. Among the species consumed are Caulerpa spp., Gracilaria spp., Sargassum spp. and Acanthophora spp. Some species like Ulva, Hydroclathrus and Sargassum are used as animal feeds.

Experimental culture of the red alga, Polycavernosa changii (Gracilaria cylindrica) is being carried out in Peninsular Malaysia while the culture of Eucheuma is carried out in Sabah, East Malaysia, on a small scale.

3. Potential for Culture

a. Peninsular Malaysia

Doty and Fisher (1987) reported that Malaysia has the inshore area necessary for a successful Gracilaria production industry or even an agar industry. About 1500 hectares of mudflats around Penang Island were identified as suitable for Gracilaria culture. Over 2000 hectares of mudflats in the Krian Bank (between Kuala Tengah and Tanjung Piandang) in Perak were also considered suitable. Doty (1977) reported segments around Kuala Kedah, Yan-Kota Selar and Tanjung Dawai in Kedah as suitable for Gracilaria culture.

b. East Malaysia

In Sabah, the Balabac Straits, and the areas around Pulau Gaya appeared suitable for Eucheuma culture (Doty 1977). Some sites northward from Kota Kinabalu were considered suitable for Gracilaria culture.

4. Seaweed/Seaweed Product

There is no industrial production of seaweed or seaweed products in Malaysia. Agar is imported into Malaysia in four main forms, namely, agar strips, bacteriological agar, agar desserts, and flavoured powder mixes (Jahara and Phang, 1989). It was reported that as high as 90% of agar imported for food is in the form of agar strips, while the remaining 10% is in the powdered or jelly dessert forms.

The Department of Statistics, Malaysia, reported the import of seaweed and its products under two categories: (i) seaweed products; and (ii) vegetable saps and extracts, pectic substances, pectinates and pectates, agar-agar and other mucilages. Tables 1 and 2 show the imports of these two categories of products from various countries into Malaysia from 1984 to 1987.

5. Research and Developmental Activities

a. Peninsular Malaysia

Subsequent to the study of Doty (1977) indicating the potential of seaweed culture in Peninsular Malaysia, a one-year pilot project on the culture of Gracilaria, funded by the Bay of Bengal Programme, was undertaken by the Fisheries Research Institute of Glugor in 1983. Three species of Gracilaria - G. cylndrica (Polycavernosa changii), G. (Polycavernosa) fastigiata and G. textorii were selected for the trials at the Middle Bank, Penang (Doty and Fisher, 1983). Raffia strings wound on wooden frames were used for spore collection. The seeded strings were then transported to the planting area where they were unwound and tied to stakes. Faazaz Abd. Latiff (1986) reported that seaweed farming based on the results at the Middle Bank was not viable. Based on an average yield of 324 g wet weight per line, the farm was able to produce seaweed valued at M$ 64.80/ha/3 months. Capital costs for setting up the farm were M$ 143.80 for materials and M$ 750 for transportation. Gracilaria thalli collected from the pilot farm at the Middle Bank were grown in prawn ponds in Ban Merbok, Kedah and in fish cages in the sea in Jelutong, Penang. Both culture trials were unsuccessful (Faazaz Abd. Latiff, 1986).

1. Not available.

2. Include Austria, France, Germany, India, North Korea, Laos, Macau, Norway, New Zealand, Switzerland, U.S.A. and Vietnam.

1. Not available.

2. Include Austria, France, Germany, India, North Korea, Laos, Macau, Norway, New Zealand, Switzerland, U.S.A. and Vietnam.

Problems encountered at the Middle Bank trial included fouling of the farm lines by the green alga, Ulva reticulata, and by epiphytes which included Hypnea and Polysiphonia. The grazing of the rabbit fish, notably Siganus javus, on the Gracilaria also posed a problem (Faazaz Ab. Latiff, 1986).

Research in seaweed culture is still being carried out by the Fisheries Research Institute, Penang. Recent studies found that the acid-sulphate conditions in some of the ponds in Ban Merbok caused the Gracilaria thalii to disintegrate. Growth from less acidic ponds gave encouraging results.

Research on the processing of agar from P. changii is also being carried out. A simple extraction method using hot water followed by the dewatering of gel by syneresis was studied (Ramli Saad, 1989). Sodium hypochlorite (2–5%) was used as the bleaching agent, and recently hydrogen peroxide was also tried.

b. Status in East Malaysia

In East Malaysia, research on Eucheuma culture was initiated in Semporna in 1986 by the Department of Fisheries together with the fishermen (Arman Shah Ambo Dalli 1988). In 1987, experimental farming of Eucheuma covered an area of 10 hectares giving a production of 400 tons wet weight. Two culture methods were used, the semi-raft and the bottom method. The semi-raft method was used in lagoons where the water depth was between 3–6 metres. Pegged stakes were placed on opposite sides of the lagoon with floats tied to the monoline at a depth of 0.9 metre from the water surface. The bottom method was also called the stake and nylon line method. Stakes 15 metres long were pegged one metre from each other and a nylon line tied between the stakes.
Problems encountered included fish predation, epiphytic growth and adverse environmental (salinity, light, temperature, water movement and water depth) conditions. Difficulty in getting a good market price was also a major problem.

6. Planning

Malaysia has a large domestic market for seaweed and agar products. In 1988, Malaysia imported about M$ 6.55 million worth of agar strips (Jahara and Phang, 1989). The successful culture of seaweed like Gracilaria would therefore save on foreign exchange.

Under the Sixth Malaysia Plan (1991–1995), the Fisheries Department will give more emphasis on the research on seaweed culture and processing. Malaysia hopes to see the development of seaweed culture on a commercial scale during this Plan period. However, the expertise of the research officers must first be enhanced through training and technical support from international agencies such as the FAO, UNDP, BOBP or NACA, before this could be realized.

References

Arman Shah Ambo Dalli. (1988). Seaweed farming in East Malaysia. ASEAN/SF/88/GEN/6, p 129–130, Manila, Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project.

Doty, M.S. (1977). Seaweed resources and their culture in the South China Sea Region. SCS/77/WP/60, 12pp, Manila, South China Sea Fisheries Programme.

Doty, M. and J. Fisher. (1987). Experimental culture of seaweeds (Gracilaria sp.) in Penang, Malaysia. BOBP/WP/52, 41 pp, Bay of Bengal Programme.

Faazaz Abd. Latiff. (1986). Preliminary results of the experimental culture of the red seaweed Gracilaria sp. in Malaysia. Bulletin Perikanan Bil. No. 40, 9 pp., Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia.

Jehara Jahaya and Siew-Moi Phang. (1989). Seaweed marketing and agar utilizing industries in Malaysia, 65 pp. Presented in Seminar on Gracilaria production and utilization in the Bay of Bengal, 23–27 October 1989, Songkhla, Thailand (mimeo).

Phang, S.M. (1984). Seaweed Resources of Malaysia, Wallaceana 33: p 3–8.

Ramli Saad. (1989). Simple process for agar extraction from Polycavernosa changii, 5 pp. Presented in Seminar on Gracilaria production and utilization in the Bay of Bengal, 23–27 October 1989, Songkhla, Thailand (mimeo).