SESSION 2 (contd.)

STRATEGIES FOR DRY SEASON FEEDING OF ANIMALS IN NAMIBIA

J.F. Els¹, P. T Jessen² and H. Von Seydlitz¹:
¹Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development. Private Bag 13184. Windhoek. Namibia.
²Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development. P.O. Box 1437. Otjiwarongo. Namibia.

Introduction

Namibia is an extensive livestock production country. The agricultural sector is divided into two major groupings; a well developed and organised commercial sector with privately owned farms, and a very large communal sector on State owned land. Practices and strategies used in these two sectors vary considerably. While the commercial sector is business orientated, the communal sector, to a large extent, is orientated to subsistence farming. Since independence a third group has appeared on the scene; the “Former Communal Farmers (FCF's)”, these are larger communal farmers who have acquired commercial farms and are now, with the assistance/guidance of extension and research officers, starting down the road of commercial agriculture.

This report will deal with each of the sectors; the commercial and communal, separately, indicating common practices used.

Commercial livestock sector

The use of licks

Namibia is an extensive livestock producing country with a relatively low and highly variable rainfall. Due to this the nutrient content and availability of the natural pastures fluctuate from year to year and between the wet and the dry season. The wet season commences during November/December and continues until March/April, with January and February as the months with the highest precipitation. The dry season stretches from May until the end of October. The most difficult period is August until October, when the nutritional value of the natural grazing is at its lowest, and the cows are in the final trimester of pregnancy.

Typical licks used in Namibia, are winter, summer and production licks. Their use is advocated in both farming sectors, since the benefits have been proven over many years. Communal farmers are reluctant to use the licks as prescribed due to the high initial costs. Advantages are only recognized later, but an immediate response is not always visible.

Licks are only used to supplement the most limiting nutrients. It is thus important to keep the animals on the pasture and not to substitute pasture with lick. Licks should directly supply minerals, protein and energy to the animal or improve digestibility, and thus increase energy and crude protein availability.

Summer lick (Green veld lick):

Large parts of Namibia are phosphorus (P) deficient, especially the northern and eastern sandy areas. A phosphorus supplement is recommended during the active growing season of the veld (December -April). This coincides with the main growing period of cattle due to the availability of high quality grazing. Since P-excretion is an “energy sapping” process, P-supplementation in winter is reduced or totally left out, so as not to supply an excess. P is supplied at six g per animal per day and usually together with trace elements.

Winter lick:

The primary aim of a winter lick is protein-supplementation (mostly NPN) (although in sandy areas P is included at a maintenance level). By law, such a supplement will provide an equivalent of 150 g crude protein per day to cattle. Maize meal or hominy chop is used in the winter lick to cause a pH-drop in the rumen for slower urea release. Intake is regulated with salt. The protein in the lick is to sustain the rumen micro organisms and thus improve the digestibility of the pasture.

Production lick:

This usually expensive product supplies the animals with energy in a combination with protein and/or P and trace elements. It is offered to young animals being finished off for the market, or pregnant or lactating cows to help them maintain their body condition for reconception. Intake typically varies between 1.5 to 2.5 kg per animal per day, supplying 150 g CP, 12 MJME and six g P per day.

Utilisation of crop residues

Due to the relatively low and variable rainfall of Namibia, the country produces very few commercial crops, the main one being maize in the Tsumeb, Grootfontein, Otavi triangle. In the rest of the country, north of the capital, farmers produce maize for their own consumption. The crop residues in all these areas are utilised, post harvest, as grazing, mostly for cattle and to a lesser degree small stock, during the dry season. This practice is of great value in management of pastures, and the control of early weeds in the cultivated fields. Other crop residues utilised to a lesser degree; are groundnuts, sorghum and cotton.

The utilisation of crop residues, together with the provision of a balanced lick, provides good grazing for the fattening of steers or for cows during late pregnancy, when the natural grazing cannot supply their nutritional needs.

Supplementary feeding

Supplementary feeding, is only practised on a small scale, by stud breeders, for preparation of show animals.

Some commercial farmers who produce maize for their own consumption, utilise the stover and grain to fatten their oxen on the veld, in order to obtain better grading, higher slaughter masses and ultimately higher incomes per animal.

During normal years, farmers very seldom supply their animals with supplementary feeding. In Namibia this practice is normally only practised during times of severe drought, when additional grazing is not available.

Maize treated with sodium bicarbonate

During the severe drought years of the 1980's, different methods of feeding animals were tested in Namibia; whole maize, sodium bicarbonate (Na HCO₃) treated maize, maize + untreated hay, maize + urea treated hay, maize + sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) treated hay. These treatments were tested for survival, maintenance and production diets in cattle and sheep (Van der Merwe, 1984; Visser, 1984; Voordewind, 1986, 1987). The sodium bicarbonate treated maize (also called chocolate maize, because of the brown colour) proved to be effective, and has since been used as supplementary feeding during times of drought.

Composition of chocolate maize:

First mix the maize and four litres of sodium bicarbonate until all the maize is wet. Then mix all the dry ingredients and add to the wet maize. Mix until the dry ingredients have formed a brown coating around the maize (in a concrete mixer this takes ± 5 minutes). Leave for 12 hrs before feeding. During trials in Namibia sheep which received 100 g chocolate maize per sheep per day on natural grazing performed better than animals which received chocolate maize (500 g per sheep per day), 400 g chocolate maize + 200 g hay per day and 300 g chocolate maize + 500 g hay per day in pens. The latter three groups all lost weight during the trial (Visser, 1984).

Utilisation of urea treated crop residues

Though the advantages of the use of urea treated straw/crop residues are known to the commercial farming sector, it is not widely used in Namibia. The reason being that only a relatively small area is cropped, and the crop residues are utilised as such, together with a protein supplement.

Utilisation of planted pastures

Though not widely practised, the utilisation of planted pastures, especially Cenchrus ciliaris, a species well suited for dry land production, during the dry season, produces excellent results in the higher rainfall areas (± 400 mm and higher). Hoffmann and Mouton (1990) indicated the potential of this planted pasture in the northern parts of Namibia. The animals are withdrawn from the natural veld during the active growing period, and placed in small camps under Cenchrus ciliaris. This practice greatly enhances the stability of the production unit and increases the carrying capacity of the farm. It is however advised not to increase animal numbers and to rather utilise the benefits of improved available grazing during the dry season.

This practice can really be advocated to farmers, in rainfall areas of above 400 mm per annum, for it can be started on a very small scale and then expanded over time.

Communal livestock sector

The use of licks

The use of commercial or home mixed licks is not yet common practice in the communal areas, especially in those areas north of the Veterinary Cordon Fence. The main reasons being the high cost of licks, and the lack of transport. In the Eastern Communal Areas of the Omaheke Region, licks are used, but not in the intended manner; the farmers normally provide too little lick. Thus the animals do not benefit from it.

Through a process of farmers days and Farmer Extension Demonstration (FED) Groups, the research and extension staff, with the support from lick manufacturers, are training communal farmers in the advantages, and correct means of supplying licks to animals.

Utilisation of crop residues

Most of the farmers in the Northern Communal Areas; Caprivi, Okavango, Omusati, Oshikoto, Oshana and Ohangwena Regions, cultivate Mahango (Pearl Millet) fields. The crop residues from these fields are utilised by the animals; sheep, goats and cattle, or left to be blown away.

In the North Central Regions it is common practice to fence off (wire or brush) the cultivated fields, as protection against animals. In the Caprivi and Okavango Regions and the communities around the big towns in the North Central Regions, the animals are moved away during the planting and growing season as protection for the crops. After harvesting the animals are allowed to graze the standing crop residues. Unfortunately many wind losses occur, leaving only the hard unpalatable stems.

The farmers are advised to harvest the crop residues and to store them. These residues are then fed to the draught oxen and cows used for milking. This practise will ensure that the oxen are ready for the next ploughing season, and will improve the milk production of the cows during the dry season.

Supplementary feeding

This is not a normal farming practise in communal areas. Supplementary feeding is mostly done in the form of drought relief aid, during declared disaster droughts. This then takes on the form of whole maize, broken maize and during the last number of years, chocolate maize.

Utilisation of urea treated crop residues

As most of the northern communal farmers are mixed farmers; livestock and crops (maize/mahango), large amounts of crop residues are available, which are not fully utilised. During the past number of years numerous projects were executed to determine the easiest way in which farmers could treat their crop residues with urea, and then feed it to their animals during the dry season. Iyambo et al., (1998) evaluated different pit designs (1m × 1m × 1m) and the acceptance of the technology by communal farmers (Table 1).

Table 1. Type of pit, erection cost and ease of maintenance of different pits evaluated.

From an economical point of view, the farmers preferred the pits built with mud bricks covered with mud and the dug pit covered with cow dung/mud. From a cost/maintenance point of view, the pits built from mud bricks covered with mud and the dug pit covered with cement, should be promoted. These two can easily be built and maintained by the farmers.

Other alternatives

Often crop farmers panic when droughts strike, for no preparations have been made. A source of animal feed often overlooked is the plant material of the failed crop. Even though the crop might be a failure, the green material may yield a total crop of up to six m/t per ha. If this material is harvested early enough and stored in plastic/polythene bags, it can be conserved as a type of silage, which has improved nutritional value and will be readily accepted by the animals. The only drawback is the price of the bags. An alternative to the bags is to use pits similar to those used for the urea treatment of straws.

Another avenue which should be actively propagated, is the introduction of a system of rotational grazing, whereby certain portions of a headman's area is rested during the growing season, and then utilised during the dry season. This will need a massive effort, for it will need the co-operation of everybody under the headman's jurisdiction. The principle can be demonstrated by means of fenced off plots.

A practise currently advocated in the Southern Communal Areas, is the planting of drought and saline water tolerant feed and fodder bushes. These plant materials can then be cut and fed, during the dry season, as a supplement to the animals.

Recommendations

• promote the introduction of rotational grazing in communal areas
• promote the correct use of, and train communal farmers in the correct use of licks
• promote the optimal utilisation of crop residues; both in commercial and communal sectors
• promote the use of treated crop residues, especially in communal areas
• promote the use of adapted dry land planted pastures
• train farmers in the correct use of supplementary feeding
• introduction of drought/saline tolerant fodder species for dry season utilisation

References

Hoffmann, J.A.H. and Mouton, A.J. 1990. Ekonomiese implikasies van die vestiging en benutting van 100ha Bloubuffelgras op 'n 7 000ha plaas. (Economical implications of establishing and utilisation of 100ha Cenchrus ciliaris on a 7 000ha farm. Agricola. 8: 1990.

Iyambo, H., Blanc, F., Mukulu, O. and Muleke, B. 1998. On-farm evaluation of urea treated straws. North Central Division Proceedings 2^nd National Annual Agricultural Research Reporting Conference. MAWRD. 1998.

Van der Merwe, P.S. 1984. Die gebruik van rumensoda-behandelde mielies by beeste. (Skokolademielies)(The use of Sodium bicarbonate treated maize in cattle. Chocolate maize). Agricola. 1. 1984.

Visser, W.H. 1984. Gebruik van sjokolademielies by skape. (The use of chocolate maize in sheep) Agricola. 1: 1984.

Voordewind, S.J.P. 1986. Oorlewingsrantsoen vir Dorperooie. Deel I. (Survival diet for Dorper ewes. Part I.) Agricola. 3: 1986.

Voordewind, S.J.P. 1987. Die herstel van Dorperooie se liggaamskondisie na'n oorlewingsrantsoen. Deel II. (The recovery of the body condition of Dorper ewes after a survival diet. Part II.) Agricola. 4: 1987.

VEGETATION AND ANIMAL PRODUCTION IN SOUTH AFRICA

J.H. Hoon
Grootfontein Agricultural Development Institute, P. Bag X529, Middleburg, Eastern Cape 5900, South Africa

Introduction

Livestock production remains the single most important agricultural activity in South Africa. The good rains of past seasons in large parts of the country have had a positive effect on extensive livestock production. There are, however, provinces that are experiencing abnormally dry periods which negatively affect animal production. Stockowners have therefore been cautioned to take note of the fact that the El Nino climatic influence could still manifest itself. There are approximately 26000 commercial livestock producers in South Africa, excluding the huge number of people who own livestock in the emerging agriculture sectors (small farmers, communal farmers, etc.). Of these 26000, 9800 are mainly cattle farmers, 25000 are mainly sheep and goat farmers and 3100 are mainly pig farmers.

Vegetation

The different Biomes of Southern Africa, representing the different vegetation types, are illustrated in Table 1. In total, there are 68 vegetation types and seven Biomes in Southern Africa.

Table 1. The Biomes of Southern Africa

Source : Bredenhamp et al., (1996)

• The Forest Biome is the smallest Biome on the subcontinent and plays virtually no role in livestock production in South Africa.
• In the Fynbos Biome the five Rhenoster veld vegetation types are used for stock farming (mainly sheep) and ostrich production. This is mainly a winter rainfall area and during the dry summer months additional feeding practices need to be applied.
• The Grassland Biome is the mainstay of dairy, beef and wool production in South Africa. There are two categories of grasses, namely sweet grasses with a lower fibre content, higher palatability and higher feeding value in winter, and sour grasses with a higher fibre content, lower feeding value in winter and lower palatability. The dry winter months necessitate the supply of supplementary feeding for animals in this Biome (mainly protein).
• The Nama Karoo Biome occurs on the central plateau of the western half of South Africa; the rain falls in summer and varies between 100 and 520 mm per year. The dominant vegetation is a grassy, dwarf shrubland. Most of the land is used for grazing by sheep (for mutton, wool and pelts) and goats. Most of the research into the dynamics of this biome has been done at Grootfontein A.D.I at Middelburg. The relatively low and unreliable rainfall of this area means that the supply of additional feed stuffs to animals is rather the rule than the exception, especially in the western parts.
• The Savanna Biome is the largest Biome in Southern Africa. This is also the dominant vegetation in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe. It is characterized by a grassy ground layer and a distinct upper layer of woody plants. Most of the savanna vegetation is used for grazing by cattle and game; in the southernmost savanna types, goats are the major stock. Rainfall (during summer) varies from 235 to 1 000 mm per year and in the areas with a lower rainfall, feeding problems are also the norm during the winter months.
• The Succulent Karoo Biome is primarily determined by the presence of low winter rainfall and extreme summer aridity. Rainfall varies between 20 and 290 mm per year. The vegetation is dominated by dwarf, succulent shrubs; mass flowering displays of annuals occur in the spring, while grasses are rare. The paucity of grasses limits grazing, and the low carrying capacity requires extensive supplementary feeds. Ostrich farming, with considerable supplementary feeding, is practiced in the Little Karoo in the south of the biome, while the northwestern parts are used for small stock farming.
• The Thicket Biome is not formally recognized in the scientific literature, but its vegetation can be classified as somewhere between that of the Forest and Savanna Biomes. The Valley Thicket, Xeric Succulent Thicket and Mesic Succulent Thicket vegetation types form the backbone of the goat industry and is economically important for Angora and Boer goat farming.

Veld and pasture statistics

Table 2 presents details on veld and pasture statistics

Table 2. Veld and pasture statistics for South Africa

Source: ARC_RFI

1. The total area of grazing, namely 73 million ha is down from the total of 76649000 in 1985. The decline can largely be attributed to urban encroachment, roads, mining and industrial development. It is difficult to predict a continuation or a rate of reduction. It is also apparent that many marginal cultivated lands are being abandoned. These will, in time, be classified as natural veld.
2. Of the 2214500 ha, 323000 ha are under irrigation.
3. Approximately 10600000 ha are currently planted to crops. It is again difficult to estimate the exact amount of residues from crops that are used for animal production. Approximately 4000000 ha are planted to maize and it can safely be assumed that most of this area is used for animal production after harvesting.
4. Approximately 60000000 ha of land receives less than 500 mm rainfall per year and is susceptible to desertification. These areas include the Karoo, Kalahari and the drier savannah areas.
5. Virtually all of the 15000000 ha of the savannah areas are subjected to varying degrees of bush encroachment.

Condition of the natural veld resources

Bush encroachment

Virtually all of the 15000000 ha of the savannah areas are subjected to bush encroachment of varying degrees. The impact of this encroachment can be illustrated with the following examples: In the Eastern Cape, research showed that grazing capacity declined from three ha per LSU to between 10 and 15 ha per LSU as a result of bush encroachment. Studies in the Northern Province revealed a decline from six ha per LSU to between 25 and 30 ha per LSU as a result of bush encroachment. Again, it is impossible to quantify exactly what the total impact of bush encroachment is on the grazing capacity of the country.

Erosion

Natural erosion has been estimated as occurring at a rate of 0.5 to 1.4 cm per 100 years, while the rate of soil genesis is approximately 0.6 cm per 100 years. The current rate of erosion calculated for South Africa is 12 cm per 100 years (1 mm of erosion per ha per year = 12 m/t soil loss) This means that soil loss per capita for South Africa is 20 times the world average. It has been estimated that approximately 3000000 ha in South Africa are completely degraded to the point of no return.

Veld condition

There is currently no National Veld Monitoring Program. No accurate details on veld condition nationally are available although individual provincial departments and research institutes are monitoring veld condition. A National Veld Monitoring Program is being planned and information will become available at a later stage. Preliminary figures show, however, that the general veld condition is a serious problem that will have a negative impact on sustainable pastoral livestock production.

Veld management

The need for basing veld management on periodic rest periods is gaining momentum in South Africa with the benefits being better feed supply throughout the year as well as improved vigour and species composition. A national network of research trials is being implemented in South Africa to monitor and examine the impact of animal types and animal movement on veld in all veld types. This method will improve the basis for veld management recommendations across the country.

Animal Production

Livestock statistics

Table 3 gives details of the numbers of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, equines, poultry and ostriches in South Africa for the past six years.

Table 3. Livestock numbers in South Africa from 1993 to 1998*

* Commercial as well as development areas
Source: National Department of Agriculture - Directorate: Statistical Information

Poultry statistics have not been included, as they are only significant when the number of birds slaughtered are calculated. The statistics were calculated from all available sources. Some of these figures remain estimates until data recording can include accurate statistics on animals in the informal sector. It is estimated that there are about 4.2 million cattle, 3.4 million sheep, 3.7 million goats and 0.32 million pigs in the informal sector. These numbers are included in the totals in Table 3. The number of cattle has increased over the last few years to an all time high of nearly 14 million, while the sheep numbers have decreased due to factors such as stock theft, conversion of stock farms to game farms, etc. Sheep numbers in South Africa reached a high of 36 million in the late 1960's and early 1970's. The current number of goats and pigs are also at an all time high. The number of ostriches have decreased dramatically over the past two years due to the oversupply of leather on the world market, and is currently believed to be in the region of less than 500000.

Marketing

Table 4 indicates the total number of animals slaughtered in the formal sector of South Africa.

Table 4. Animals slaughtered in the formal sector of South Africa from 1993 to 1998

Source: SA Meat Board

Statistics for the informal sector are not readily available, but efforts are under way from various stakeholders to monitor this sector, as it is a major contributor to the off-take from animal production in the developing sector. In the communal rangeland sector in particular, informal slaughter of cattle, sheep and goats is far higher than often expected. Taking a long-term review on domestic producer prices, it is clear that producer prices, especially those of beef and pork, have been in a strong decline since the 1980's.

Imports and exports of meat

The total imports of meat into South Africa are illustrated in Table 5.

Table 5. Imports of meat into South Africa from 1994 to 1998

* SACU - Southern African Customs Union (SA, Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland, Lesotho)
Source: SAMIC

The red meat industry stays under pressure as the importation of meat from countries where producers are subsidized are giving these competitors an unfair advantage. This situation is already having an impact on production in South Africa as rising input costs are making the local producers less competitive.

The total exports of meat from South Africa are illustrated in Table 6.

Table 6. Exports of meat from South Africa from 1993/94 to 1996/97

Source: Directorate Statistical Information: NDA

Beef cattle

Grazing land accounts for about 60 percent of the total land surface of South Africa, making it the cheapest resource for the production of beef. After a reduction in the number of cattle in the early nineties, numbers have had a steady increase, as the grip of the El Nino effect was not as severe as previously thought. Some of the beef producing areas of the Northern Province, however, have experienced severe droughts over the past few years.

There is also an increasing demand for South African locally developed beef breeds on the international market and Nguni and Bonsmara cattle have been exported to African countries. Bonsmara embryos have also been exported to South America.

Dairy cattle

The total production of milk in South Africa is illustrated in Table 7.

Table 7. Production of milk in South Africa from 1993/94 to 1996/97

Source: Directorate Statistical Information: NDA

The gross income from fresh milk increased by 13.8 percent to an estimated R2464 million. Dairy production per cow in South Africa has increased dramatically over the last 20 years. In 1997, milk recording in South Africa commemorated 80 years of existence. The achievement of dairy producers involved in the National Dairy Recording Scheme is astonishing, as the production increased by 58.5 percent from 4040 kg to 6154 kg per lactation. This can be attributed to the introduction of new genetic evaluation techniques such as the BLUP animal model, where the contribution of the environment and genetics can be calculated. Performance tested cows comprise 29 percent of the national herd, but their performance per lactation is about 60 percent higher than of that of the average of the national herd. There is an increased demand for South African dairy genetics in Africa and consignments of semen and live animals were exported to a number of African countries.

Sheep

The Dorper sheep, a non-wool sheep, is the most popular sheep breed for mutton production in South Africa. Due to its excellent adaptability to harsh conditions, it has replaced large numbers of wool sheep in some of the traditional wool producing areas. This is illustrated by the decrease in the number of Merino sheep from 20 million in 1980 to 13 to 14 million currently. The number of Merinos as a percentage of the total sheep herd of South Africa has dropped from 65 percent in 1980 to under 50 percent currently; other wool sheep breeds represent about 20 percent of the national herd, while non-wool sheep breeds represent about 30 percent. In the mid 1960's the Merino represented as much as 80 percent of the total herd. Breeds like the Dorper, SA Mutton Merino, Damara, etc., are becoming more and more popular on the international animal genetics market. Locally, most of the mutton is produced off natural veld, particularly in the semi-arid areas. The severe droughts of the early nineties and increased stock theft have had a negative impact on this industry. Wool sheep breeders produce the largest portion of the mutton and this sector is very much under the influence of wool prices on the world markets. Karakul production continues to decrease as a result of low international demand. The number of pelts have decreased from 66271 in 1990 to 16389 in 1994. In 1997 there was a marginal increase in numbers, but it is unlikely that South Africa will ever produce the 1.99 million pelts of the 1971/72 season. The number of Karakul sheep reached a high of 2.2 million in the years 1970 to 1980, compared to the current number of about 100 000 sheep. International trends seem to indicate that this industry is starting to revive, but welfare issues with regard to the slaughtering of day old lambs, as well as the fact that it is a fashion item, will remain a problem. The Karakul remains, however, one of the most suitable small stock breeds for the arid areas of South Africa.

Goats - meat

Of the total of about 6.7 million goats in South Africa, about two million are Angora goats, about one million are Boer Goats and approximately 3.7 million are goats in the developing areas (mainly Boer Goats, cross breeds and indigenous goats). Angoras account for the largest proportion (60%) of commercially slaughtered goats. These animals are normally slaughtered in greater numbers when the market price of mohair is very low. Improved Boer Goats were exported to a number of overseas countries. In fact, the export of South African Boer Goat embryos to Australia, the USA and Canada may have a negative effect on South Africa's future international marketing possibilities. The export of poor quality genetics could also have a detrimental effect on international markets. Attention also has to be given to the establishment of an International Boer Goat Society. The traditional/communal sectors are also major producers of goat meat, mainly from indigenous goats. This is a sector that has the potential to become a major producer of red meat. Adding value to goats is also receiving attention, particularly with regards to quality skins. The indigenous goats' resistance to ticks is reflected in far less damage to the skin. More quality skin is therefore available for use in the fashion industry and other industries. The Leather Research Institute at Rhodes University (Grahamstown) is currently investigating this aspect in close co-operation with the Animal Improvement Institute of the A.R.C. A project to commercialize indigenous goats in South Africa has been launched with the support of the NDA, Aus-Aid and US-AID. This project is being run by the Animal Nutrition and Animal Products Institute (ANPI) of the ARC at Irene (Pretoria).

Goats - milk

The most important breed remains the Saanen, followed by small numbers of Toggenburg and British Alpine. The gene pools are extremely limited and importation from most countries that could supply material is not possible for health reasons. Saanen semen may soon be imported from New Zealand to broaden the local gene pool. The development of a synthetic breed from the Saanen and the local goats shows promise, as it is possible to select for heartwater resistance. This project was initiated by MEDUNSA and it deserves far more support than it has at present as it could lead to the establishment of a very viable goat milk industry in the emerging and smallholder sector. The potential for development in this sector is well illustrated by the efforts of estates in the Western Cape where Saanen milk and milk products (cheese, etc.) are in high demand.

Pigs

Most of the pork is produced in intensive production systems that utilize grains as their basic energy source in rations. The price of pork is also closely correlated with the beef price. Some of the farmers in the Western Cape area are investigating the possibility of outdoor pig breeding. The pig industry is also moving in the same direction as the poultry industry where meat is produced by hybrids. The recent development of the local Robuster pig is a typical example.

Ostriches

The South African black ostrich is the most sought after breed on the international ostrich market. While the export and marketing of genetic material locally as well as internationally may have been lucrative, the long-term market will mainly be in meat and skins. An oversupply of skins has led to the saturation of the world leather market with a massive drop in the number, as well as value, of ostriches in South Africa. The lifting of the ban on the export of fertile ostriches and hatching eggs has seen the development of markets in the Emirates, China and Malaysia. More attention needs to be given to the development of a regional processing and marketing network as well as an information network.

Poultry

The total production of poultry meat and eggs in South Africa is illustrated in Table 8.

Table 8. Production of poultry meat and eggs from 1994 to 1996

Source: Directorate Statistical Information: NDA

The poultry industry remains the most important supplier of animal protein in South Africa as indicated by the per capita consumption of poultry that increased from 5.18 kg in 1970/71 to 20.19 kg in 1996/97. This extrapolates to 552 million birds slaughtered for 1997. The per capita consumption of eggs also increased from 3.91 kg to 6.28 kg over the same period. The per capita consumption of red meat (beef, mutton and pork) has decreased from 35.74 kg to 19.21 kg for the period 1970/71 to 1996/97. It is estimated that the broiler industry will continue to grow at a rate of five percent per year as the demand for animal protein increases. The gross value of animal production in relation to field crops and horticulture is shown in Table 9.

Table 9. Gross value of agricultural production from 1993 to 1997

Source: NDA Annual Report 1997/98

The contribution of animal production to gross value of agricultural production has varied between 41 percent and 47 percent over the past five years and remains the main contributor to agricultural production in South Africa.

Fibre Production

Wool

The total shorn wool production in South Africa is illustrated in Table 10.

Table 10. South African shorn wool production and market indicators from 1993/94 to 1998/99

* Wool sold outside auctions, stocks and regain increases
Source: SA Wool Board Annual report 1995/96

The decrease in wool production is largely a result of a reduction in sheep numbers during the drought, crossbreeding for mutton and problems with stock theft. The total amount of wool shorn in South Africa reached a high of 143.6 million kg in the period 1966 to 1970. The contribution of Merino wool to the total wool sales has, however, remained at a level of about 70 to 75 percent for the past two decades. Average wool production per sheep per year has remained relatively constant at a level of 3.6 to 4.0 kg during the same period; the fibre diameter has, however, decreased considerably over the past two decades. The coloured wool industry needs to be revisited. There is a global trend towards the use of naturally coloured wool for weaving and the smallholder sector in particular could benefit by maintaining coloured wool breeds and developing cottage industries. Adding value to coloured wool would also encourage producers to keep this wool out of the normal wool clip and to market it separately.

Mohair

The total production of mohair in South Africa is shown in Table 11.

Table 11. Production of mohair in South Africa for the period 1990 to 1996

The after effects of the drought and low mohair prices during the early nineties are still influencing the mohair industry. Production has shown a steady decrease from the all time high of 12.1 million kg in 1988 to a low of 5.4 million kg in 1994 and 1995. In addition, low mohair prices have led to a great deal of diversification, including ostrich production. Very good mohair prices, especially for kids, young goats and fine adult hair, have rejuvenated the industry with a consequent rise in production. The market indicators for mohair during the last season were as follows: Kids-R97 per kg, young goats - R62 per kg and Adult goats - R22 per kg. At one stage, there was a growing mohair industry in the traditional and communal sector, but this has also been influenced by the factors already mentioned. The South African Angora, however, remains the most sought after fibre producing goat in the world.

Summary

Livestock production is the mainstay of the South African agricultural sector, as illustrated by its contribution to the gross value of agricultural production. High quality research and development, advisory services, product and market development, etc., with regard to livestock production, should therefore remain the number one priority in South African agriculture in order to ensure sustainable food production for the region and all its people.

Acknowledgements

Statistics for this paper were supplied by:-

The Natural Department of Agriculture SA Stud Book and Livestock Improvement Association.
S A Meat Board
S A Wool Board
Mohair S A
S A Meat Producers Organisation South African Meat Industry Corporation
Southern African Poultry Association
ARC : Animal Improvement Institute
ARC : Range and Forage Instute

STRATEGIES FOR DRY SEASON FEEDING OF ANIMALS IN ZAMBIA

W. M. Mukumbuta and Christine C. Yamba Yamba
Senior Animal Production Officers
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Zambia

Background

Zambia lies in the Southern tropical zone between latitudes 8° and 18° south and longitudes 22° and 34° east.

The total land area of Zambia is approximately 752618 square km and is divided into nine provinces: Luapula(1), Northern (2), Eastern (3), North-Western (4), Copperbelt (5), Central (6), Western (7), Southern (8) and Lusaka (9) provinces (Figure 1).

The current population is estimated at 11.2 million with a higher proportion of this population living in the urban centres of the country.

Figure 1. Regions and provinces of Zambia

In agro-ecological terms, Zambia is divided into three regions: I, II and III (Mwenya, et al., 1992) (Figure 1). Region I, which lies in the Southern part of the country, is classified as a semi-arid area characterised by poorly distributed rainfall not exceeding 800 mm per annum. This region, which includes valley areas, has the shortest growing period that does not exceed 120 days. The region also has very fragile soils.

Region II covers the broader central belt of the country characterised by soils of the highest potential and rainfall between 800 and 1000 mm per annum. The growing period in this region ranges from 120 to 160 days and the region forms the main area for commercial agricultural production.

Region III is the high rainfall area covering the northern part of the country with rainfall exceeding 1000 mm per annum. This region has the longest growing period exceeding 160 days. The soils of this region are, however, characterised by acidity.

Though it can be generally said that the whole country experiences reduced nutritional levels during the dry season, the most adversely affected areas are within Regions I and II.

Livestock density and distribution

The livestock sector consists of the extensive (traditional) and intensive (commercial) sectors. Since the traditional sub-sector is the one most vulnerable to the effects of dry seasons, this paper concentrates on the traditional sub-sector in Zambia. Table I shows the livestock density in the traditional sub-sector and their respective percentages of the national herd/flock.

Table 1. Livestock densities in the traditional sub-sector of Zambia

Source: Livestock Concerns in Animal Traction; Proceedings from the Fourth Annual Workshop-PADPD, 1995, Lusaka, Zambia

About 70 percent of the cattle and 78 percent of the goat population is concentrated in Southern, Western, Central and Eastern provinces, i.e. Region I and II in general. These are the areas that have poor rainfall and sometimes drought, thus the need to have dry season feeds and feeding systems.

Livestock management systems

The two common systems of livestock management in Zambia are the extensive (traditional) and intensive (commercial) systems.

The traditional system of livestock management is characterised by:

Uncontrolled communal grazing on natural grasslands

The natural grasslands, commonly known as veld, are an important source of nutrition for livestock. Unfortunately, most of the grasses found in these grasslands are fast-maturing, making most of their growth during December and January, after which they flower, set seed and virtually stop growing. Their nutritive value to livestock is, therefore, limited in terms of both quality and quantity (length of availability period). The soil type and amount of rainfall are also limiting factors to the usefulness of these grasslands. Most of these areas are over-stocked, and this leads to over-grazing, which can lead to land degradation. There is no system of grazing in most areas, animals are free to graze, as they will.

Poor or no supplementary feeding practices

Since the natural grasslands have limited nutritive value there is a need to supplement the animals during the dry season. In most areas there are inadequacies in supplementary feeding practices or none at all and this leads to low productivity of animals and poor body condition. Crop residues and indigenous crops are not fully utilised.

Uncontrolled breeding

Random (uncontrolled) breeding not only promotes in-breeding, but also leads to animals producing young in unfavourable times when natural grasslands are at their lowest nutritive value (dry season).

Poor or no health management practices

Where the condition of livestock is threatened by poor nutrition, inadequate health management practices predispose livestock to disease and poor production.

Natural watering facilities.

Natural watering facilities are seriously affected by the advent of the dry season. Also most of these drinking points are a long distance from the farms.

In contrast the commercial system of management is characterised by:

• Controlled grazing on improved pasture
• Adequate supplementary feeding practices
• Controlled breeding
• Adequate health management practices
• Natural and artificial watering facilities.

Consequently, nutrition in this system of management is less affected by the advent of the dry season.

Impact of the dry season on livestock production

Average annual rainfall in Zambia is between 800 and 1 000 mm, but there is a dry season from about April to November every year.

The major impact of the dry season on animal production is nutritional stress. Depending on the severity of the dry season this can result in increased mortality.

Since livestock are largely dependent on natural vegetation for their nutrition, and natural vegetation is largely dependent on rainfall for its growth, the impact of the dry season on livestock nutrition becomes clear.

Furthermore, the absence of water for direct consumption by livestock not only affects the general metabolism of livestock, but also reduces the intake of feeds that are already of poor nutritive value due to the dry season. The result of this nutritional stress is poor livestock condition with the following significant effects:

• Reduced productivity (milk, meat and traction energy).
• Reduced fertility
• Increased susceptibility to disease
• Increased morbidity and/or mortality

All these effects have adverse socio-economic implications on the livelihoods of resource-poor farming communities in Zambia.

Strategies for dry season feeding of animals in Zambia

Some of the main methods of coping with the nutritional stress induced by the dry season in Zambia have been:

• Conservation of maize and sorghum stover for feeding to the most vulnerable stock (especially milking cows, weaners and traction stock)
• Use of multi-nutrient blocks in feeding
• Dambo grazing
• De-stocking
• Culling of excess stock.
• Use of products from indigenous woodlands e.g. Ndale pods
• Silage making using natural grasses
• Treatment of dry feeds with salt or urea
• Hay making on farms
• Pasture production

Conclusion

The effects of the dry season on animal nutrition in Zambia are serious and it is vital to devise concerted strategies in order to maintain productivity levels during the dry season.

References

Mwenya J. et al., 1992. The Feasibility Study of Region I Research Network-Choma Zambia.

Sinyangwe, P. 1995. Livestock Concerns in Animal Traction: Cattle Distribution and Supply for Draft Purposes. Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Animal Draft Power Workshop-Lusaka, Zambia.

STRATEGIES FOR DRY SEASON FEEDING OF ANIMALS: CURRENT STATUS IN ZIMBABWE

C. Chakoma¹, L. Hove² and P. Nyathi^3
1 Grasslands Research Station, P. Bag 3701, Marondera.
² ICRAF, Harare
³ Department of Research and Specialist Services, P O Box CY 594, Harare

Introduction

A total of 33.3 million ha of land is under agriculture in Zimbabwe and of this 30.9 million ha are under rangelands. Rangelands or natural pasture are the major source of feed for livestock. Farmers in Zimbabwe have a total of 5.5 to 6 million cattle and 4 million small-ruminants. Over two-thirds (4.5 million) of the cattle and most of the small-ruminants (which are mainly goats) are held by communal farmers (Central Statistics Office, 1999).

The agricultural industry in Zimbabwe is divided into two major sectors, the commercial and communal (small-scale). The major characteristics and productivity of cattle are summarized in Table 1. Commercial farmers have freehold title to their land with farm sizes ranging from 500 to 5000 ha for large scale and 30 to 100 ha for smallscale commercial farmers.

Climatic conditions

The country experiences a unimodal type of rainfall, with almost all the rain falling between November and March. The dry season stretches for six to eight months and can be generally divided into two phases, that is cool and dry (May to July) and hot and dry (August to October). The first part of the dry season is characterized by abundant feed of low quality. In the communal farming sector this is probably the period of the most abundant feed supply from crop residues and verges of arable lands. The later part of the dry season is the most critical with limited quantity and quality of feed. Animals are emaciated and sometimes die in communal areas if rains are delayed.

Despite the communal farmers owning the majority of cattle, sales from this sector are low (2 to 5% of the herd). This has been attributed to the multiplicity of functions of communal area cattle (Cousins et al., 1988). Some of the functions of cattle in the communal areas include; draught power, manure and traditional ceremonies. Selling of cattle is usually a last resort due to financial hardships and old age of the animal.

Table 1. The different agricultural sectors in Zimbabwe and their characteristics

Characteristics of natural pasture (veld) in Zimbabwe

Rainfall is the most important factor controlling the composition and productivity of rangelands (Butterworth, 1985). Natural pasture (veld) is the major feed resource for livestock and can be divided into three broad categories based on vegetation type (Clatworthy, 1998).

Sweet veld

This is the rangeland type in semi-arid low rainfall (below 600 mm), low lying (below 900 m) areas of Zimbabwe. Most of the grasses are annual species which retain nutrients in the apical portions during the dry season. The nutritive value during the dry season is relatively high and animals are able to at least maintain weight. Browse, which is high in protein content, is also available. Sweetveld areas have a shorter growing season and the probability of droughts occurring is greater than the other areas.

Sour veld

Found mainly in sub-humid, high altitude (above 1200 m) high rainfall areas (above 800 mm per annum). The grasses are mainly perennial species which relocate nutrients to underground parts during the dry season. These grasses are poor in quality but higher yielding. Animals on this rangeland usually lose weight if no supplements are provided.

Mixed veld

Usually in areas of intermediate altitude and rainfall with mixed grass species of transitional quality and palatability (Gammon, 1998).

Seasonal changes in feed value

Seasonal changes in the nutritive value of natural pasture have been quantified by Elliott and Folkersten (1961) on hand-clipped forage and Sibanda (1984) on oesophageal extrusa. The most striking feature is the decline in protein content as the wet season progresses. Protein content is highest in November and lowest in May/June. Fibre content increases as the season progresses but only marginally (Elliott and Folkersten, 1961). Low protein concentration during the dry season is the major factor limiting animal production from natural pasture (Elliott and Folkersten, 1961; Crowder and Chheda, 1982). The low protein content causes low digestibility and feed intake thus also causing energy deficiency.

The decline in protein content and hence nutritive value of herbage is more marked in sour veld areas than sweet veld areas. In the sweet veld areas the decline in grazing quality during the dry season is ameliorated by the presence of browse species which maintain high protein levels during the dry season (Table 2).

Table 2. Nitrogen content (g per kg DM) of browse and hay preferred by goats in the wet, early dry and dry season of the year for three seasons

Source : Dube and Ndlovu (1994)

Strategies for coping with the dry season

In order to reduce the effects of low herbage quality and quantity during the dry season, Zimbabwe farmers have adopted various strategies. Farmers cope with the dry season through improved management of the veld, provision of the most limiting nutrient (protein), introduction of legumes into the natural pasture and complete replacement of the natural pasture with improved grass and legume species. Excess herbage produced during the wet season is often conserved for use during the periods of feed scarcity.

Grazing management

In the commercial farming sector grazing land is demarcated into paddocks and is usually rotationally grazed. Stocking rates range from three to 12 ha/LU depending on natural region being higher in the high rainfall areas.

Some of the paddocks are rested during the wet season for dry season grazing (bush foggage). Livestock grazing bush foggage achieve good gains during the early dry season through selection of leafy herbage but lose weight as the dry season progresses due to leaf fall and bleaching (Crowder and Chheda, 1982). Due to inaccessibility, seasonally water-logged areas (vleis or dambos) are only utilized during the dry season. Herbage in vleis remain green well into the dry season, although most of the grass species are unpalatable. Vleis are sometimes burnt and the grass quickly sprouts and is a valuable source of green forage during the later part of the dry season.

Grazing land in communal areas is owned by the whole community and is not demarcated into paddocks mainly due to limited resource endowment. Livestock numbers are more than double the recommended stocking rates resulting in severe feed shortage during the dry season. Scoones et al., (1988) found no evidence of grazing management in the communal areas. However, communities respect restriction of cattle to non-arable areas during the wet season. Soon after harvesting livestock can graze anywhere.

Grazing schemes have been set up in some communities using funds from external donors or the government. The grazing schemes are managed but the major benefit of grazing schemes is seen as reduced labour for herding (Cousins, 1987) rather than improved veld management.

Supplementation

In Zimbabwe, as elsewhere in the tropics, livestock grazing natural pasture during the dry season suffer from nutrient inadequacies. Natural pasture is low in protein during the dry season (Elliott and Folkertsen, 1961; Sibanda, 1984). The low crude protein content cannot support rumen function which requires a minimum of seven percent protein. Feed intake and digestibility in turn fall below requirements for maintenance. Animals grazing natural pasture during the dry season therefore lose weight. Losses of up to 20 percent of late summer weight have been recorded (Gammon, 1992). Supplementation of livestock with protein reduces the weight loss and sometimes results in live weight gain (Ward, 1968). Provision of supplementary protein to grazing livestock has resulted in improved reproductive efficiency in breeding cows (Table 3) and growing animals attain breeding or slaughter weight earlier (Gammon, 1996).

Table 3: Productivity of beef cows supplemented with protein during the dry season

Source: Gammon (1996)

Protein supplements available in Zimbabwe include cottonseed meal (CSM) soyabean meal (SBM) meat and bone meal (MBM), blood meal and proprietary cubes or blocks. Of these only SBM, CSM, cubes and blocks are readily available. The use of animal by-products such as MBM and BM for ruminant livestock feeding has been discouraged following the outbreak of ‘mad cow’ disease in Europe. Groundnut cake is not readily available due to limited quantities of groundnut being currently grown in the country.

Non-protein nitrogen (NPN) sources such as urea and poultry litter are also used as protein supplements. Sibanda et al., (1992) reported similar performance of steers fed various protein supplements including urea-molasses licks (Table 4). The problem with poultry litter as a supplement is its limited availability and variable quality.

Table 4. Body weight and carcass weight changes (kg) of weaner steers grazed on veld and offered no supplement (C), or protein supplements containing cottonseed meal (CSM), soyabean meal (SBM), meat and bone meal (MBM) or blood meal (BM) during two dry seasons

Source: after Sibanda et al., (1992)

Despite the clear benefits of protein supplementation to breeding cows during the dry season, calving rates in Zimbabwe remain at 65 percent, equivalent to levels attained with unsupplemented cows in experiments on research stations. This led one expert to conclude that farmers might not be following recommended supplementation regimes or stocking rates (Topps, personal communications).

Provision of protein supplements to steers can be delayed until end of July (Manyuchi et al., 1992a) due to the ability to exhibit compensatory growth. Steers not fed during the dry season grow faster during the subsequent wet season and can compensate up to 50 percent of the weight loss during the dry season (Manyuchi, 1996). Compensatory growth is usually not allowed in heifers due to the effect of weight loss on reproductive performance.

Supplementary feeding is not routinely practiced in the lowveld (sweet veld) due to the high proportion of sweet and annual grasses and the availability of browse trees and shrubs. If correctly stocked, animals will have an adequate supply of nutrients all year round, with supplementary feeding only necessary under extreme conditions (Sibanda, 1998). However, the browse trees and shrubs have anti-nutritional factors such as tannins and resins which limit utilization by browsing animals. Digestive modifiers such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) are sometimes used to improve utilization of the browse. Although farmers and in vitro experiments have indicated improved animal performance and feed utilization, the efficacy of digestive modifiers has not been conclusively proven in grazing trials.

Communal farmers do not normally supplement livestock during the dry season. This is due to the high cost of ‘brought-in’ supplements. However, some farmers have been known to provide salt and maize meal to cattle during the dry season.

Use of crop residues

Crop residues are an important source of feed during the dry season in both commercial and communal farming sectors. Crop residues are the fibrous remnants from crop harvest whose quality is highly variable depending on the crop species, growing conditions and post-harvest processing or treatment (Smith, 1993). Most crop residues are deficient in protein, essential minerals and are fibrous. Farmers usually graze the residues in situ or collect and conserve residues for later use. Commercial farmers make use of all the residues produced on the farm such as maize, wheat and soyabean residues, while communal farmers collect mainly maize stover. The use of other crop residues such as groundnut haulms is minimal despite its higher nutrient content. Research and extension effort should be put into promoting the use of higher quality residues such as groundnut haulms.

Weight gains of up to 0.7 kg per day have been reported in steers grazing maize stover in situ (Manyuchi et al., 1992b). The high weight gain has been attributed to the presence of left-over maize grain and the ability of the animals to select the more nutritive parts of the stover (leaves and cob sheaths). Once these are used the rate of weight gain drops and animals lose weight if only the stalks are left.

Communal farmers normally make use of maize stover during the latter part of the dry season (from August) when feed supply is most critical. They usually throw the stover into the pen where it is trampled and soiled before the animals make full use of the feed.

The nutritive value of cereal residues can be improved through urea treatment. Treatment causes partial solubilization of lignin and hemicellulose fractions, with a resultant increase in digestibility. Nitrogen levels are also elevated (Manyuchi et al., 1994). Urea treatment of cereal residues has been enthusiastically accepted by both communal and commercial farmers. Within the commercial farming community, urea treatment is usually practiced during years of severe feed shortage, such as the drought of 1992. Urea treatment is often limited by the availability of the imported urea.

Reinforcement of natural pasture

Planting of adapted forage legume species into the natural pasture has been successfully carried out in Zimbabwe using legumes such as Stylosanthes spp., Desmodium spp., Macroptilum atropurpurem (Siratro) and Chamaecrista rotundifolia (Cassia). These legumes are adapted to different soil types and climatic conditions with the Desmodium spp doing well in high rainfall areas with heavy soils while the Stylos favour lighter soils. Siratro, Archer and Cassia have been successfully established in lower rainfall areas (Clatworthy et al., 1985).

Reinforcement is usually practiced in the sourveld areas where the quality of the natural pasture deteriorates during the dry season. The legumes incorporated improve the crude protein content of the natural pasture and also improve carrying capacity (Clatworthy et al., 1985). Legumes fix nitrogen resulting in more vigorous sward growth. Live weight loss is reduced in cattle grazing reinforced veld and in lighter stocked areas animals gain weight during the dry season (Lungu, unpublished mimeo). Improved reproductive performance is also achieved in cows grazing reinforced veld although (Mazorodze et al., 1994) observed low cow productivity on legume reinforced veld. They attributed the low productivity to poor legume persistence. To have an effect on livestock productivity a minimum of 30 percent legume content in the sward is required.

In communal areas legume reinforcement is not widely practiced. The current system discourages any input into a communally owned resource. Reinforcement is however, practiced on privately owned grazing on the verges of arable land or in long-term leys. On grazing schemes, reinforcement has had limited success due to high stocking rates which do not allow the legumes to persist.

Tree legumes are also used but to a limited extent especially in the commercial farming sector. Their poor adoption is related to the need to protect the young trees from grazing by both domestic and wild animals. Smallholder dairy farmers have taken up tree legumes where they are planted on contour ridges. The browse is fed as a protein supplement to lactating cows.

Use of planted pastures

Farmers sometimes completely replace the natural pasture with improved forages either temporarily in rotation with crops (ley pastures) or on a longer-term basis (permanent pastures). The improved forages provide herbage of better quality. Due to the high quality, forage from planted pastures is an important source of dry season feed for livestock. The forage is either harvested and conserved during the wet season or left as standing hay. Where water is available the planted pastures are irrigated and provide green forage during the dry season.

Ley pastures are usually established in rotation with crops, mainly tobacco. In tobacco rotations the ley grasses have to be resistant to root-not nematodes. Some of the grasses used under this system include; Katambora Rhodes (Chloris gayana), weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula) and Panicum spp. (Clatworthy, 1998). Legumes such as Siratro and Archer are sometimes incorporated into the leys in order to improve the quality of the grazing and also take advantage of the residual soil nitrogen.

There has been a concerted effort to encourage communal farmers to put fallow land to ley pastures, especially legumes (Clatworthy et al., 1985). The legumes provide a quality feed while improving soil nitrogen status. Uptake of this technology is low, except among smallholder dairy producers, due to the subsistence nature of communal livestock production.

Permanent pastures are for longer-term use and the grass selected must be able to withstand heavy grazing. The major grass used is stargrass No. 2 (Cynodon spp.), although kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum), paspalum and napier fodder are also cultivated. Napier grass and its hybrids (e.g. bana grass) are popular with smallholder dairy farmers. High herbage yield which can be conserved as silage is the major advantage of napier fodder.

Where water is available the planted pastures are irrigated in order to extend green forage production into the dry season. Due to the high cost of pumping water and fertilizers, the use of irrigated pastures is limited to high value livestock enterprises such as dairy and cattle finishing. Stargrass, kikuyu and midmar ryegrass are the major species used in irrigated pastures. Ryegrass oversown into kikuyu pastures is used to extend the herbage supply into the cooler months (Manyawu and Madzudzo, 1996). Irrigated kikuyu is often reinforced with Kenya white clover to improve forage quality and minimize fertilizer use.

Forage conservation

During the wet season there is usually excess forage production either from the natural pasture or from planted pasture. Farmers conserve the excess herbage mostly as hay. Silage is also prepared but mainly from maize and good quality planted pastures such as stargrass and napier grass. While hay is fed to all classes of livestock during the dry season, silage is fed mainly to dairy cattle and to a lesser extent incorporated into finishing diets.

References

Butterworth, M. H. 1985 Beef Cattle Nutrition and Tropical Pastures. Longman, London and New York. 500pp.

Clatworthy, J. N. 1998a Veld: The Basic Feed. Beef Production Manual. Cattle Producers Association, Harare, Zimbabwe.

Clatworthy, J. N. 1998b Planted Pastures for Beef Production. Beef Production Manual. Cattle Producers Association, Harare, Zimbabwe

Clatworthy, J. N., Maclaurin., A. R. and Avila, M. 1985. The possible role of forage legumes in communal farming systems in Zimbabwe. In: Potentials of forage legumes in farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa. Eds: I Haque., S Jutzi, P J H Neate. pp265–288 Addis Ababa, ILCA.

Crowder, L. V. and Chheda, H. R. 1982. Tropical grassland husbandry. Longman, London and New York.

Cousins, B., Jackson, C. and Scoones, I 1988. Socio-economic dimensions of livestock production in the Communal lands of Zimbabwe. Report and Recommendations of a Workshop, CASS/GTZ, Masvingo, Zimbabwe.

Cousins, B. 1987 A survey of current grazing schemes in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. CASS, UZ. Unpublished report.

Central Statistical Office, 1999. Agriculture and Livestock Survey in Communal Lands-1997. Government Printers, Harare.

Dube, J. S. and Ndlovu, L. R. 1994. A note on seasonal variation in the chemical composition of four browse species in the Matopos redsoil thornveld. Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural Research. 32: 179–182.

Elliott, R. C. and Folkertsen, K. 1961. Seasonal changes in composition and yields of veld grasses. Rhodesia Agricultural Journal. 58: 186–187.

Gammon, D.M. 1992. Making the most of veld grazing. In: Beef in Natal. Department of Agricultural Development, Petermaritzburg, RSA.

Gammon, D. M. 1996. Dry season supplementation and productivity of the beef herd. Mimeograph, CPA Beef Forum, 16pp. Zimbabwe.

Gammon, D. M. and Maclaurin, A. R. (1998). Veld Management and Improvement. Beef Production Manual. Cattle Producers Association, Harare, Zimbabwe.

Manyawu, G. J. and Madzudzo, A. U. K. 1996. Influence of sowing date and seedbed preparation on herbage production and botanical composition of tropical grass-clover pastures oversown with Midmar rygrass (Lolium multiflorum) for forage production during the dry season. Tropical Grasslands. 30: 193–200.

Manyuchi, B., Smith, T. and Mikayiri, S 1992a. The effect of dry season feeding on the growth of Mashona steers of two ages kept on natural pasture during the subsequent wet season. Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural Research. 30: 117– 126.

Manyuchi, B., Smith, T. and Mikayiri, S. 1992b. The effect of stocking rate on live weight change and utilization of maize stover grazed by steers in situ. Third Symposium on Science and Technology, Research Council of Zimbabwe. 6–8 October, 1992.

Manyuchi, B., Mikayiri, S. and Smith, T. 1994. Effect of treating or supplementing maize stover with urea as feed for sheep and cattle. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 49: 11–23.

Manyuchi, B 1996. Dry season supplementation of young stock and compensatory growth during the wet season. Mimeograph, CPA Beef Forum, 3pp.

Mazorodze, C. R., Sibanda, S. and Grant, J. L (1994). Beef production from veld and legume based pastures. 1. Cow-calf production. Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural Research. 32: 45–56.

Sibanda, S. 1984. Composition and diet selected from veld by steers fistulated at the oesophagus and the body-mass changes of non-fistulated steers grazing the same paddocks. Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural Research. 22: 105–107.

Sibanda, S., Ndlovu, L. R., Smith, T. and Grant, J. L. 1992. Effects of source of supplementary protein on performance of weaner steers grazing veld during the dry season. Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural Research. 30: 33–43.

Sibanda, S. 1998. Supplementary Feeding of Beef Cattle. Beef Production Manual. Cattle Producer's Association, Harare, Zimbabwe.

Smith, O. B. 1993. Feed resources for intensive smallholder systems in the tropics: the role of crop residues. In: Grasslands for our World. SIR Publishing, New Zealand. pp 740–747.

SESSION II - DISCUSSION

1.   Botswana (G. Maphane)

Q.   Are there heavy losses of livestock in Botswana?

A.   Animals do die in the dry season in the small farm sector due to lack of grazing and poor financial resources. However, there has been a trend for farmers to gain employment off the farm and they can then afford supplementary feed in the bad years. Cattle are a status symbol and individuals strive to own cattle and keep them alive. Mortality rates have never been as high as in 1982/1983.

Q.   What is the main purpose of cattle?

A.   Draught power, milk production and marriage dowries. Donkeys are now often used intead of cattle for draught. Also attitudes are changing and more people are using animals to generate income.

Q.   Is there any work being done to increase forage production, including trees?

A.   Government is involved in encouraging farmers to grow lab lab which is more nutritious than the natural range. Seed supply is a problem, and seed is currently imported from South Africa. Programmes are underway to increase local seed production. Other programmes involve:-

• planting of Atriplex munuralia in the desert area
• establishing of plots of Leuceana leuceana in the eastern part of the country
• development of grasses such as Cenchrus ciliaris and legumes such as Siratro in the better areas

2.   Malawi (G. Matita)

Q.   As you have a lot of relatively high rainfall areas, is leucaena grown?

A.   Leucaena is grown in both the high and low areas. Programmes are underway to introduce other fodder crops.

Q.   You mentioned that animals gain liveweight in the dry season. Which crops provide feed?

A.   Maize stover is the main source as maize is widely grown. Groundnut hay is also common.

Q.   How long is the dry period?

A.   The critical time is September and October. People are now preparing for ploughing and there is a lot of burning and destruction of stover.

Q.   If the cattle population has gone down, why do you still have cattle feeding problems?

A.   The expanding human population is putting pressure on the available land.

Q.   Is reducing the cattle population a national strategy?

A.   In general it is felt that it is better to keep small stock and poultry because they do not need so much land. There is very little land available for ranching.

3.   Mozambique (R. Uaila)

Q.   The body weight loss that occurs in the dry season - is it a roughage quality or quantity problem?

A.   A shortage of total dry matter. The veld is generally of relatively high quality.

Q.   Are you keeping cattle mainly for lobola or meat production?

A.   We are tending to focus on a commercial basis for cattle production.

Q.   Do small farmers keep goats?

A.   Goats are kept, but only for meat purposes.

Q.   What is the position in respect of tsetse fly infestation of the livestock population.

A.   It is a problem. Tsetse control is in progress along the border with Zimbabwe.

4.   Namibia (H. Van Seydlitz)

Q.   Is the Government promoting commercialisation of cattle in the communal areas?

A.   Not yet. Researchers are promoting improved management by the use of fencing, and those systems will be passed onto the policy makers (Government). This will lead to the generation of income by selling cattle to the commercial abattoirs.

Q.   Is browse utilised in the dry areas?

A.   Mopane trees are widespread and there are pockets of thorn bushes in the large-scale commercial sector. Generally, intakes of browse by cattle are low.

Q.   Which drought and saline plants are being promoted?

A.   Prickly pear, salt bush and some imported grasses.

Q.   As Namibia is a dry country, how much attention is given to stocking rates in relation to dry matter production?

A.   Emphasis has shifted into the correct management of rangeland, especially in the commercial areas. Livestock units per hectare is being replaced by the biomass system.

Q.   How much does livestock production contribute to the smallholder farmer sector?

A.   Difficult to assess, but traditionally it is fundamentally a livestock production system.

Q.   Why are commercial licks not accepted by the communal sector?

A.   Perceived as too expensive. Home made licks (e.g. FAO) are also still a problem because ingredients are expensive and licks are labour intensive to mix.

Q.   You emphasise rotational grazing but studies have shown that there is no difference between rotational and continuous grazing in animal performance.

A.   Rotational grazing is encouraged in the commercial sector as it provides the sward a rest and allows for re-growth. In the communal areas, farmers move their animals far away from the fields during the growing season.

5.   South Africa (J. Hoon)

Q.   Are there more cattle in the large scale than in the small scale sector?

A.   That is correct

Q.   Has there been any turn around in the extent of bush encroachment in South Africa?

A.   Although there are a number of programmes in place to combat bush encroachment, it remains a major problem, and there certainly has not been any turn around.

Q.   What are the causes of bush encroachment?

A.   There is no direct answer as they may vary and also interact. Reasons could be overgrazing; control measures against veld fires and the species composition of the animals on the veld.

Q.   What part does wildlife play in the commercial sector?

A.   Wildlife is becoming increasingly important in commercial livestock production. Tourism is encouraging game ranching.

6.   Zambia (W.M. Mukumbuta)

Q.   Although you listed a large number of strategies, dry season feeding is still a problem. Which strategies are in use?

A.   Adoption rates of new strategies have been very low. Government has initiated ways whereby farmers can change the management of their animals. But the trend has been very slow.

Q.   How effective are your extension services?

A.   As yet, they are not really effective.

Q.   Zambia is a huge country, I would have thought you would have plenty of rich natural resources.

A.   Due to their size and systems, it is the traditional farming sectors which are vulnerable. Most commercial areas have relatively large tracts of land.

Q.   Can you clarify “dambo grazing”

A.   Dambos are areas that flood during the rainy season, but have a high water table during the dry season and can therefore produce grass and can be grazed during that time.

Q.   Why are livestock numbers so low?

A.   In the northern areas, where grazing is good, people are only now realising the importance of livestock as generators of income. In the southern areas there are more cattle but the grassland is poorer and there is a lower carrying capacity.

Q.   To what extent are new technologies being adopted in the livestock sector?

A.   The farming systems approach has not yet been taken on board. More emphasis on livestock systems is urgently needed.

7.   Zimbabwe (C. Chakoma)

Q.   Most of the technologies you mention appear to be directed at the commercial sector rather than the communal areas.

A.   There are some technologies being adopted, e.g. systems in the small scale dairy sector. Several institutions (e.g. Department of Research and Specialist Services, University of Zimbabwe) are conducting on farm trials aimed at improving feed availability and conservation, e.g. silage, new fodder crops and urea treatments.

Q.   Why are communal farmers providing salt to their cattle when they are under stress?

A.   We are not sure why, except that it is generally believed that salt increases appetite.

Q.   Surely salt can be disastrous in some situations as it increases the need for water.

A.   Correct. However salt supplementation is also common on commercial farms. Salt solutions are sprayed on stover in the communal areas to increase intakes. In addition salt is used as an intake inhibitor in licks, especially phosphate and urea licks.