N.D. Joshi*
INTRODUCTION
The total area of the country is approximately 148,000 km2 of which two-thirds is mountainous and the one-third is Terai plains. The ecology of the region can generally be divided in three main levels: i) Terai (between 75 and 300 mt above sea level); ii) hills (between 300 and 3,000 mt above sea level); and iii) mountains (between 3,000 and 8,000 m above sea level).
Of the total land area, the Terai occupies only 17 percent when compared with 68 percent and 15 percent for the hills and mountains, respectively. The agriculture and pasture areas occupy 31.4 percent of the total land area. The total land use by type is presented in Table 1.
The human population at the end of 1985 was 16.46 millions. The population density was 11 person/km2. Livestock contribute 15 percent of the total GDP and 25 percent of agricultural GDP (ADB 1982).
* Deputy Director General, Department of Livestock Development and Animal Health, Kathmandu.
DISTRIBUTION AND GROWTH OF LIVESTOCK
Nepal has one of the highest livestock population per unit of cultivated area. The livestock population in 1985/86 consisted of about 6.34 million head of cattle, 2.89 million head of buffalo, 0.8 million head of sheep, 5.01 million head of goat; 0.45 million head of pigs and 10 million fowls and ducks (DFAMS 1042/43). The hills and mountains contain about 63 percent of the cattle population; 69.8 percent for buffalo; 73 percent for goat; 87 percent for sheep, 75 percent for fowl and 15 percent duck population (Table 2). The average number per family was 5.8.
The present cattle population consists of only 11 percent in milk whereas in buffalo population, only 24 percent are observed to be milk. The growth rates of cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goat and pig have been estimated to be increasing at the rate of 0.3, 1.8, 3.0, 2.8 and 3.1 percent, respectively.
Livestock is the major source of cash income through the production of milk, ghee, meat, hides, wool and eggs although overall productivity among the indigenous beeds of livestock and poultry is extremely low. However, livestock plays an indispensable role in the farming systems of the country. Livestock supports group production not only through draught power inputs but also, more importantly, through the recycling of nutrients, i.e., provision of manure without which soil nutrient level falls would fall faster than at present.
Livestock Products
The major livestock products are milk, meat, eggs, wool, power and manure. Of the total milk production of 754 thousand mt, 29 percent comes from cattle and 71 percent comes from buffaloes. Regarding total meat production of 130 thousand mt in 1985/86, about 68 percent comes from buffaloes and the rest was contributed by goats (10 percent), sheep (2 percent), 08g (8 percent), chicken (4 percent) and duck 0.2 percent). (Nepal, 1986).
Production Characteristics
The production potential of local breed of livestock in terms of milk and meat is very low. The shortage of feeds, uncontrolled breeding, parasites and contagious diseases are the root causes of low productivity. The feed available from grazing on the outskirts of the village, fallow grazing, tree loppings, rice strawchaff, some grains, etc., are not sufficient to meet the basic requirements of the animal, specially ruminants. Besides, almost all livestock and poultry population consists of indigenous breeds which have adapted to low levels of nutrition. Their production possibilities have not been fully explored.
Availability and Demand of Livestock Products
The present level of livestock and poultry products are estimated to supply 119.2 calories per day per person. Based on the availabilities of the resources it has been planned that the level would be increased to 165.3 calorie in the year 2000 (NPS). To meet this level the milk and meat production has been proposed to be increased up to 1,334 thousand mt and 333 thousand mt of meat and milk, respectively by the year 2000 as shown in the Table 3.
Feed Condition
The large population of animals in the country is one of the main reasons for acute feed shortage in the country. Shortage of improved nutrition is a major constraint in livestock development. At current levels of production, especially of ruminants, only 54 percent of the total feed requirements are met (Rajbhandary and Shah, 1984). An observable trend is the gradual decline in feed productivity as a result of population pressure, one hand, and increased livestock pressure on the diminishing resource base, on the other hand. Green fodder is generally available in reasonable quantity from June to September each year for ruminants. But in the dry season, animals are fed sub-maintenance rations and are virtually in a semi-starved condition for a period of about seven months. Thus, malnutrition over two-thirds of the year reduces the animals' condition and adversely affects production.
Feed Resources
The main sources of livestock feeds are rangeland, forest, open grazing land, and cropland. Rangeland occupies the major part of the high hills and mid-hills.
Rangeland
Trans-Himalayan region (steppe) - This region is dominated by spiny dwarf vegetation and the rainfall drops below 200 mm. Because of continuous dry wind and high solar radiation without cloud interception, the availability of moisture in the existing vegetation is limited and, therefore, ground vegetation is very poor. Much of the feed available in this region comes from grazing land and shrubs. This region contributes only 1 p.c. of total feed available from rangeland. It is estimated that 0.2 of the steppe rangeland is converted annually into wasteland because of lack of regrowth due to continuous grazing and the use of shrubs for fire wood.
High mountain region (Alpine meadow) - The alpine meadows are usually above 3,600–5,400 m elevation. They make up about 57 percent of the total rangeland. The main vegetation is dwarf shrubland and of juniper rhododendron and berberis with low grazing value. The short tussock grass and shrub with festucae and Agrophrin are the predominant species of high grazing value (Van Swindern 1978).
This native grassland is the main gazing area for sheep, goat, yak and chauri. They spend about 3–4 months in this region during summer. The carrying capacity is highest in the alpine meadows, being 1.42 LU/ha compared to 0.09 and 0.54 LU/ha in steppe and open grazing land in mid hill, respectively. (Rajbhandary and Shah). The feed available here is utilized by the movement of animals from the mid-hills to this region. The deficit in feed supply is partially fulfilled by the movement of animals from the border areas to Tibet and to lower altitudes during winter. But the recent restriction on the movement of animal towards Tibet region for grazing has further complicated the ruminant feed situation, especially in the border region of Nepal.
Open grazing land - This makes up about 33 percent of the total rangeland area and is scattered in patches over large areas from the subtropical to cool temperature zone. Much of the open grazing land is the product of ecosystem brought about by human activities. Excessive forest grazing, clearing area for cultivation, burning and tree-felling for fuel and timber have changed the scattered forest and scurbland into open grazing land. The continuous grazing in this land gives little change for vegetation regrowth and regeneration. Moreover, open grazing land is usually converted into gerraces for food crop cultivation.
Forest - Forests provide leaf fodders, grasses and weeks which normally are cut and carried. Forests contributes about 23 percent of the total ruminant feed and its carrying capacity is about 0.31 LU/ha (Rajbhandary and Shah). This is declining over time as its fodder land decreases in area and productivity. Although its fodder productivity is low, dependance on forest area is always increasing with the cultivation pressure on the land. About 50 percent of the forest area is grazed throughout the year.
Cropland - Cropland provides residue and by-products such as stubble, grass and weeds from maize, millet, rice and winter field crops, and from terrace risers and bonds. In one hill district, it was estimated that terraced slope constituted about 24 percent of the cultivated land (Field and Pandey 1969). Since the agriculture sector of the country is dominated by food crops, almost all of the cultivable land is used by food crops.
In Nepal, the average size of holding is about 0.5 ha and 1.7 ha in hills and terai, respectively. Therefore, the farmers do not practice fodder cultivation. They prefer to use their land for food crops for home consumption. However, in some parts of the country, especially in the Terai region, some farmers have started cultivating winter fodder crops like oats, (Aven sativa), berseem and (Trifolium alexandrinum). But since this is a new practice among the farmers, the actual area planted to these crops is very meagre and has not so far been recorded. As far as the feed supply from the cropland is concerned, the feed, especially for ruminants, come from crop residues and by-products.
Of the total TDN available from crop residues and by-products, straw contributes 82.6 percent, bran 16.7 percent and oilseed cake and other 0.7 percent. Paddy and millet straw and maize stovers contribute 91.8 percent of TDN available whereas wheat straws provide only 1 percent (S.L. Pradhan 1986).
Regarding the use of grain and by-products for animal feeds, about 10 percent of the total maize grain production is used for animal feeds and about 86 percent, 100 percent and 72 percent of the country production of rice bran, wheat bran and oil cake, respectively, are used for feed (FAMS, 1985/86). Grains in the form of flour are mostly used in poultry, milking cattle and buffalo feeds.
Fodder Tree
Another present source of feed is leaf fodder, especially during the lean period from the months of October to June. Although its contribution to the animal feed resource is very low it has a great potential for generating extra feed. Farmers have fodder trees around the homestead either manurally growing or in a few cases, transplanted. The estimated carrying capacity and follow are 0.08 LU/ha (Rajbhandray and Shah 1981).
MAJOR PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS AFFECTING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FEED RESOURCES
Feed availability in terms of quality for the existing, animal population, especially during winter, period is inadequate.
Farmers depend mainly on crop by-products such as straws, stovers and bran which are often not up to standard for high-producing animal of greater genetic make up.
Grains used for the formulation of balanced feed by the farmers themselves are usually deficient in energy and protein required for different types of ruminants and non-ruminants.
Flush growth in monsoon season is often of low quality feed with high moisture content. Even during winter, feed (fodder) available is of low quality with matured stem and high fiber content.
Traditional system of raising animals has heavily relied on forest feed resources, which has discouraged fodder production on the farm itself. Depletion of forest resources has affected the availability of fodder in terms of quality and quantity to the existing animal population.
Small farm sizes leave little room for adequate fodder production on the farm itself.
Traditional cropping system based on subsistent farming system gives least importance to animal feed production for farm animals.
Inadequate knowledge of conservation, preservation and utilization of available feed and crop by-products such as straw, stover, bran and cakes has created an awful waste of energy and protein.
Traditional system of raising livestock for manure and power has become a poor incentive for growing fodder in the farm itself.
Inadequate population planning due to religion, unavailability of feed and poor husbandry practices has created extra burden on available feed resources to maintain uneconomic and unproductive animals for prolonged periods.
MEANS OF IMPROVING FEED AND LIVESTOCK RESOURCES
Feed Resources
In the valleys of low hills and Terai, berseem has become a promising winter forage. After paddy harvest, in November, much of these fields are left fallow till next planting. Sowing of berseem in October when there is enough moisture for germination in standing paddy field before 3 weeks of paddy harvest could provide a nutritious winter feed.
Transplantation of Setaria anceps and Desmodium uncintum (silver leaves) has been found successful (Thapa 1985). Terrace wall and bonds are assumed to be 25 to 30 percent of upland area, 40 percent of which could be used for planting grass or legumes.
Strip cultivation of maize with cowpeas has been successfully practiced.
Emphasis has been give to the cultivation of multi-purpose fast growing fodder trees, e.g., ipil-ipil, Badhar (Artocarpus lakoocha) percent Kutmiro (Litsea polyantha) and mulberry all of which has shown encouraging results.
Silvi-pasture development has been brought into practice satisfactorily. The inclusion of forage legumes uynder fodder tree blocks and forest planting could increase the productivity of fodder per unit of land area. Promising legumes species for lower hills are Stylosenths guianensis and Desmodium intortum. Grasses like setaria anceps and Paspalum sp. could be mixed with these legumes. In the higher mid-hills, Trifolium repens and Dactylis glomerata may be suitable mixtures.
Tropical Kudzu (Pueraria phaseloides) when grown as an inter-row crop with sisal increased the signal (Bracharia species) by 48 percent above that of a clean weeded crop (Skerman 1977).
Forage conservation is not common in Nepal except in the high hills where farmers make some hay from local grasses. But the quality of hay is very poor as the grasses are harvested too late in their growth stage. Quality could easily be improved if the growth is either grazed or cut and the aftermath growth from August is left for the hay.
More pressure regarding the feeds is built up in high mountain during summer whereas in winter the pressure is shifted towards the low hills because of traditional migratory systgem. The pressure can be balanced by changing this system.
LIVESTOCK RESOURCES
Artificial and natural breeding of cows and buffaloes with proven exotic breeds to an optimum level of exotic inheritance has shown encouraging results in terms of milk production.
In exotic breeds, Jersey cattle and Murrah buffaloes have been used.
Similarly, Merino, Polworth, Rambuillet and Border Leicester in sheep and Jamunapari, Barberi in goats have been used as improved exotic breeds for upgrading the local ones for various purposes, e.g., fine wool, carpet wood and mutton and have shown satisfactory results.
POLICIES AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF
LIVESTOCK AND FEED INDUSTRIES
Ban on the slaughter of cattle and all female animals has prevented culling and selection in cattle thereby increasing the cattle population.
Ban on export of cattle has also caused the above effect.
Unrestricted export of grain and oilseed by products such as rice bran, wheat bran oil cakes has resulted in high local cost of concentrates in the country.
Lack of legal provisions and non-existence of proper quality control practices have resulted in undependable quality of feed.
Government policy to levy import tax on feed ingredients such as fish meal and mineral mixture not available in the country and other good has increased the production cost of compound feed.
AREAS FOR RESEARCH
No special attention has been given so far towards research on livestock feed. Keeping in view its importance, the National Agricultural Research Committee has been established under the Ministry of Agriculture. At present context, the promising areas of research on feedstuff are as follows:
REFERENCE
ADB 1982. Nepal agriculture Sector Strategy Vol II, Manila
Field, D. and Pandey, K.R. (1969). Pasture, Fodder and Livestock Development, Trisuli Watershed Development Project, kathmandu (HMG/FAO Project Report No. 15)
S. L. Pradhan, Proceeding of a workshop, Indonesia 1986.
Thapa, B.R., 1985. Fodder and Production Experiences of Pokhribas Agricultural Centre, Proceeding of First Livestock Workshop 1985, Pakhribas Agri. Centre, Nepal
Van Swinderm, 1968, Terminal Report of the Pasture and Fodder Specialist, Nepal
Technical Report, Sheep, Goat and Wool Production Project FAO/UNDP, Nep/72/006
Muhammad Akram*
INTRODUCTION
The livestock industry in Pakistan annually consumes 37.55 million mt of total digestible nutrients (TDN) from different sources (Table 1). They derive 24.25 million mt, i.e., about 64.58 percent from the cropped area, out of which 34.4 percent is supplied from crops specifically grown as feed and fodder; and 65.6 percent is contributed by crop residues. The rest of the 13.30 million mt, i.e., 35.42 percent of TDN, is applied through grazing on flood plains, rangelands, canal banks, road-side grazing and fruit wastes. Flood plains provide grazing for about 6 months a year.
The estimated nutrient requirement in the country by all types of livestock 1984–85 is presented in Table 2. Currently livestock are getting only 25 percent of the required amount of the total digestible nutrients (TDN). There is shortage of digestible crude protein (DCP) as well because livestock are deficit up to the extent of 60 percent digestible crude protein (Table 3).
The existing livestock population needs an additional 12.54 million mt of TDN per annum to meet their maintenance and production requirements. The gap between supply and demand of nutrients will further widen. As is evident from the data shown in Table 3, the requirements of TDN and DCP will rise to 115.44 million mt and 9.11 million mt, respectively, by 1000. This disparity between the availability and requirement of feeds and fodder reflects a deplorable state of affairs. Under this situation, it is just not possible to exploit even the existing genetic potential of livestock. Thus, the basic constraints in developing livestock industry in Pakistan is the great shortage of feed.
* Professor, Department of Livestock Management, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad
The livestock population in Pakistan is at present under severe nutritional stress, as the base for its feed supply has been progressively eroding. This is due mainly to the exploitative system of utilizing plant and animal resources; 60 percent of the geographical area of Pakistan, nearly 48.56 million ha out of 80.95 million ha (mainly used at present for grazing of livestock) is threatened with decertification. The carrying capacity of rangelands has been reduced to 10 to 50 percent of their potential. (Muhammad and Naz, 1985). Around 16 to 19 percent of the total cropped area is planted to fodder crops annually. The area under fodder crops has been reduced during the past decade or so without significant corresponding increase yield of fodder crops. (Gill et al. 1979).
Table 1. Availability of Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) and Digestible Crude Protein (DCP)
(Unit: 000 mt)
| Feed | Crop Residues | TDN | DCP |
| Fodder crops (2.84 million ha) | 5,572.4 | 8,359.9 | 947.5 |
| Straw | |||
Wheat | 14,628.8 | 7,021.8 | 43.9 |
Rice | 4,144.0 | 1,574.7 | 16.6 |
Maize | 4,140.4 | 1,644.2 | 12.3 |
Barley | 164.5 | 79.0 | 1.2 |
Bajra (millet) | 354.6 | 170.2 | 2.5 |
Jawar (sorghum) | 288.0 | 138.2 | 2.0 |
Gram (chick peas) | 654.6 | 314.2 | 4.4 |
| Sugarcane | |||
Sugarcane tops | 9,641.9 | 1,235.4 | 37.9 |
Sugarcane, molasses | 1,285.6 | 1,067.0 | 39.9 |
Sugarcane pith | 1,607.0 | 642.8 | 24.1 |
Filter mud | 803.5 | 803.5 | 80.3 |
| Sugar beet | |||
Sugarbeet pulp | 67.3 | 45.7 | 6.3 |
Crown and leaves | 62.1 | 37.3 | 8.7 |
Molasses | 3.6 | 2.9 | 0.2 |
| Stubbles | |||
Wheat | 1,755.5 | 702.2 | 22.8 |
Rice | 5,497.3 | 193.9 | 6.5 |
Maize | 154.1 | 61.6 | 2.2 |
Barley | 19.7 | 7.9 | 0.3 |
Bajra (millet) | 42.7 | 17.0 | 0.6 |
Jawar (sorghum) | 34.5 | 13.8 | 0.4 |
Gram (chick peas) | 78.5 | 31.4 | 1.0 |
| Bran/cakes | |||
Wheat | 585.2 | 421.3 | 16.8 |
Rice | 265.2 | 190.9 | 21.2 |
Cotton seed | 1,457.4 | 1,049.3 | 276.9 |
Rape, mustard and sesum seed | 129.6 | 93.3 | 24.6 |
| Grain used as feed | |||
Gram (chick peas) | 26.2 | 87.0 | 5.2 |
| Waste banana plant (15,700 ha) | 532 (dry matter) | 415.0 | 13.8 |
| Grass from different sources | |||
Canal banks (121,403 ha) | -- | 500 | -- |
Road sides (303,509 ha) | -- | 600 | -- |
Orchards (133,544 ha) | -- | 200 | -- |
Flood plains (161,871 ha) | -- | 5,500 | 400 |
Range lands (56,250,254 ha) | -- | 4,400 | 300 |
| Grand Total | 99,126.5 | 37,554.4 | 2,370.1 |
Source: Livestock Division, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad
Table 2. Projected/Estimated Nutrient Requirements of Livestock
(Unit: mt)
| Species | 1976 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 | ||||
| TDN | DP | TDN | DP | TDN | DP | TDN | DP | |
| Cattle | 16,808.43 | 1,325.73 | 16,756.40 | 1,321.63 | 16,625.14 | 1,311.30 | 16,495.01 | 1,301.01 |
| Buffalo | 18,007.82 | 1,420.33 | 19,245.12 | 1,517.92 | 22,732.97 | 1,793.02 | 26,847.10 | 2,117.51 |
| Sheep | 4,285.22 | 337.99 | 6,032.48 | 475.80 | 14,182.45 | 1,118.62 | 33,345.31 | 2,630.05 |
| Goat | 4,909.13 | 387.20 | 6,884.05 | 542.61 | 16,027.70 | 1,264.16 | 37,318.00 | 2,943.34 |
| Camel | 1,339.13 | 105.62 | 1,356.10 | 106.96 | 1,395.14 | 110.04 | 1,439.27 | 113.52 |
| Total | 43,349.73 | 3,576.87 | 50,274.15 | 3,964.92 | 70,963.39 | 5,597.14 | 115,444.69 | 9,105.43 |
Source: Livestock Division, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Islamabad
TDN = total digestible nutrients.
Table 3. Balance Sheet on Availability and Requirement of TDN and DP, 1984–85
(Unit: 000 mt)
| Item | Availability | Requirement | Balance | |
| Total | Percent of Requirement | |||
| TDN | 37,554 | 50,096 | -12,542 | 25 |
| DP | 2,370 | 3,951 | -1,581 | 40 |
Source: Livestock Division, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Pakistan
The present fodder production in the country is far from satisfactory. The area planted to fodder crop is 1.7 million ha with a production of 53.0 million mt. The fodder crop varieties are outmoded resulting in low yields. Virtually no fertilizer is used and little attention is paid to other agronomic practices such as timely sowing or planting, pest and weed control, stage of plant at harvest, cultivation practices, preservation and conservation. Little attention is paid to quality of fodder, the amount of green fodder is the criteria of measurement rather than feeding value. There is lack of sufficient high yielding and better quality seeds of fodder. (Bhatti, 1986).
In Pakistan grazing of rangelands during the proper season is usually either misunderstood or not fully practiced. As a practice rangelands are grazed at the end of the grazing season when most of the grasses and forages have dried (Muhammad and Naz, 1985).
The major factor hindering the utilization of agro-industrial by-products as animal feed is the unawareness/ignorance on the part of farmers. The technology for the improvement of the by-products as potential sources of feed through different treatments and processing is not being taken to the doorsteps of the farmers because of inefficient extension service in the country.
The Formula Feed Industry (Poultry Feed Industry) is facing crisis and the feed mills are running under capacity. The major factor responsible is marketing of feed on credit basis. The feed being manufactured is of poor quality and below standard. This is due to the absence of legislation (Feed Control Act).
There is lack of an effective research, extension and training programme and there is non-existence of integration and coordination among fodder production, range management and livestock production. Coordination and linkages with international institutions dealing with fodder crops, pastures and range management are lacking.
Due to low priority given to fodder/forage crops and range management, inadequate financial resource allocations are made for research in these areas.
Government livestock administrators are veterinarians who occupy key posts and defend their own interest groups. As a result, there is shortage of livestock production specialists.
The problems are being solved and the constraints are being removed to some extent through some innovations. high yielding, better quality multi-cut summer fodders are being evolved and introduced at farmers' level. The farmers are being educated about the treatment of crop residues through demonstration. Non-conventional concentrates comprising agro-industrial by-products are being formulated and introduced at the farmers' level.
The first attempt at scientific range management was made in 1954 in Maslakh area near Quetta in Baluchistan Province with USAID assistance under a project titled, “Maslakh Range and Pasture Improvement Scheme”, covering about 46,593 ha. This pilot project was approved for a period of 10 years ending June 30, 1964. The pastures which were properly fenced had been stocked with about 2,600 head of sheep. The project succeeded in focusing attention of the Government on the problem of rangelands and served as a valuable training ground for all levels of personnel. It helped in generating useful information. The results achieved made it possible to extent range management operations to 12 other areas covering about 50,637 ha in the Quetta-Kalat region.
Encouraged by the results achieved in Maslakh, the Government of Pakistan decided to extend the range management programme to other parts of the country.
Since very little information was available concerning the range resources of the country, a reconnaissance type of range survey was carried out during 1958–59 which indicated the possibilities of initiating a range management programme on a large scale. As a result of this survey, the Pakistan Range Improvement Scheme was initiated in 1960 which covered 12 representative areas of about 2023-4,047 ha each, in various parts of the country. These were developed as demonstration areas and for the collection of basic information about range improvement techniques suitable for local conditions.
The operational range management programme was extended to other areas which are discussed as follows:
North-Western-Frontier Province (N.W.F.P.) - In Rakh Miran in Dera-Ismail Khan district about 1,333 ha were successfully developed through water spreading. The production increased up to 907 kg of dry matter forage ha. The range management projects were also started in resumed lands of Luni Range in Dera Ismail Khan, Haripur, Hazara and Kohat districts though with less success.
Punjab Province - The Thal project covering 69,541 ha was inituated in 1962–63, comprising 8 government “rakhs” (reserved areas) scattered in central/southern parts of Thal (desert) with manageable /grazing privileges for the livestock of the private owners. The primary operation has been to develop these ranges through artificial reseeding. So far 28,328 ha have been reseeded. The reseeded areas have been opened for grazing of livestock on permits to the adjoining population.
The Cholistan project covering 26,97,478 ha was initiated in 1963–64. Due to highly brackish underground water, efforts were made to collect rain water in water ponds constructed at 23–24 km distance. There are 478 ponds in about 10,339 m2, each pond serving about 5,666 ha. Efforts to reseed these ranges failed. Dur to harsh environment, socio-economic problems, meager resources, thinly populated and extensive areas, the grazing could not be controlled and regulated. This resulted in practically no impact on range resource. The nomadic grazing pattern prevalent in Cholistan desert did not conform to the planned grazing use. An area of about 40,468 ha on the border of Cholistan desert has been allotted to 7,000 Cholistani families for raising supplemented feed for their livestock.
The Mari Dhurnal area extending to over 3,055 ha, being a reserved forest-grazing area was well managed through fencing, reseeding and water development and it served as a demonstration project. Livestock owners have been allowed to graze their animals on permits year long.
The Dera Ghazi Khan demonstration/research project covering 2,023 ha failed to produce any positive result because planned grazing could not be done due to unprecedented droughts, ill-planned research scheme and lack of interest on the part of personnel concerned.
Sind Province - The range projects extending over 15,000, 1,428 and 3,410 mi2 in registan, Kohistan, Dabeji and Hab were selected in semi-arid and arid desert ranges. The objectives were to develop and improve the ranges and establish regulated grazing management for demonstration purposes. In addition to grazing management, range improvement through development of water resources, reseeding, water spreading, afforestation and soil conservation practices were planned. The efforts were only partially successful. Due to organizational deficiencies and soci-economic problems, practically no grazing management was possible. Because of unregulated grazing use, even partial success through reseeding and water spreading could not produce a positive effect on range resources or the livestock.
Baluchistan Province - The range projects of Yateabad, Kapip, Merhail and Khatuka covering 24,912, 1,093, 1,505 and 3,896 ha were selected in arid and semi-arid zones. The project areas were either state forests or acquired from tribal people. The objectives of the projects were demonstration, research and were maintained on these areas. There had been good performance of livestock and improvement in range resources in Maslakh, Kapip and Yateabad. Where socio-politicval conditions did not permit any control, there has been no positive result. Development operations include development of water resources, fencing, reseeding and veterinary health cover.
Azad Kashmir - In Azad Kashmir, Lashrat Sheep Farm comprising both range and livestock management is being successfully run by the Forest Department.
Recognizing the importance of forages, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) initiated a Coordinated Research Programme on Fodders and Forages in 1975. Under the programme, besides other studies, trials on test adaptation of shrubs and trees for fodder are being carried out. Forage and pasture research units were established in all the provinces. Before the initiation of this programme only the Pakistan Forest Institute (PFI) at Peshawar in N.W.F.P. province had a range research unit. Introduction trials on indigenous and exotic forage trees and shrubs have led to the selection of few promising species for planting in different ecological zones.
For the manufacture of formula feed (poultry feed) the first feed mill was established at Rahimyer Khan in Punjab province in 1964 by M/S Lever Brothers Pakistan Limited. In early 1970s the pioneers n formula feed industry initiated the manufacturing of rations for lactating animals (cows and buffaloes) and horses. Due to some myths and notions horses rations could not be accepted by horse owners. Dairy concentrates namely “Bhaisona” and “Ghee Ration” were used at the Government Livestock Farmers/Livestock Experiment Station, but only for a short period, most probably because of poor quality.
Then in the later part of 1970s, the animal nutritionists working in the Feeding Section of Feeding and Management Division at the Livestock Production Research Institute, Bahadurnagar, (Okora) and Animal Nutrition Department of the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad in Punjab province introduced dairy concentrates in the market which motivated the feed manufacturers to manufacture dairy concentrates. But unfortunately these feeds could not get popularity among livestock farmers primarily due to poor quality. Later on in early 1980s in private sector one feed mill was established at Sheikhupura in Punjab province which is manufacturing only dairy concentrates marketed as, “Sona Wanda”. Its sale progress is not satisfactory.
During 1978 a semi-commercial project titled, “University Cattle Feed”, was initiated by the Animal Nutrition Department, at the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (Punjab). Besides dairy concentrates al types of poultry formula feeds, fattening rations for meat animals (beef/mutton), calf starter rations, calf growing rations, sheep/goat rations, horse rations, rabbit rations and fish feed are being manufactured and marketed but on pilot project basis.
In the recent past an extension service programme was initiated through Village Livestock Associations (VLAs) in the Punjab Livestock Development Project in Sheikhupura District in Punjab province. The project was sponsored by the World Bank. The programme was related to growing and use of fodder crops and grasses and agro-industrial by-products in livestock feeding. Unfortunately the programme failed due to some administrative problems.
The following ways and means are suggested to increase the supply of fodder/forage:
Fodders
Forage
The following steps are suggested to enhance forage production:
Other Measures
The government's national agricultural policy stresses a balanced approach to all aspects of agriculture, including crops and livestock. At the national levels, the “National Livestock Development Committee” formulates policy for livestock production in the country. The government of Pakistan has been concerned about the poor performance of livestock in relation to the ability of this sector to produce sufficient quantities of milk and meat to satisfy the demand of the increasing population. Provincial and federal officials in teaching, research or extension know the subtleties involved in various livestock production systems and appear to be doing a good job with resources at hand.
The government's concern and interest in the performance of livestock sector is being expressed in several ways. The livestock and poultry producers are exempt from income tax; import of breeding exotic animals and birds, machinery and equipment for livestock/poultry industries (if not available in Pakistan) are duty free; artificial insemination service with semen for bulls of exotic as well as indigenous breeds of cattle and buffaloes is provided at a very reasonable rate; free health cover is provided to the farmers' livestock. To encourage the livestock industry, the government is leasing out large areas of land for livestock farming and advancing loans through commercial banks for this purpose.
In order to stabilize the supply-demand situation, the government regulates the export of feed ingredients keeping in view the local demand. To further stabilize the prices of formula feeds (poultry feeds) the government supplies cereal grains, i.e., maize and sorghum whenever imported under the World Food Programme or any other programme at subsidized rates to the feed manufacturers.
Quality standards of different feed ingredients have been fixed by the Pakistan Standard Institute. To ensure quality and safety of feeds (formula feed/poultry feeds) the Punjab Animal Compound Feeding Stuff Act has been inacted in Punjab province. For its proper implementation, a Feed Testing Laboratory has been established at the Poultry Research Institute (Poultry Development Centre) at Rawalpindi/Punjab which is headed by the Feed Inspection Officer provided with auxiliary staff for feed inspection.
The Government policies have helped in the establishment of hatcheries/poultry industry in the country. The establishment of dairy industry (milk processing plants) is also the outcome of the liberal government policies. The people are investing huge amounts of money in the establishment of feed lot operations encouraged by government policy regarding export of 50 percent meat of the incremental production as a result of feed lot fattening operations.
Research related to feed resources has been and being conducted in the Animal Nutrition Department in the three agricultural universities, one in each province of North-Western-Frontier (N.W.F.P.) Punjab and Sind. In addition, research on feeding of livestock/poultry aiming at the utilization of agro-industrial by-products is in progress in Punjab at the Livestock/Poultry Production Research Institute, Bahadurnagar (Okara) and Rawalpindi, respectively. Besides, the Animal Nutrition Research Centre recently established at Rakh Dera Chall, near Lahore (Punjab) and Pasture and Range Nutrition Division of the barani Livestock Production Research Institute, Kherimurat, district Attock (Punjab) are also engaged in research on the development of pastures and ranges as feed resources.
In the recent past an extension service programme was introduced through Village Livestock Association (VLAs) in the Punjab Livestock Development Project sponsored by the World Bank. This programme was related to growing and use of feed crops and grasses and agro-industrial by-products in livestock feeding. Very recently under MART project sponsored by USAID, extension work at small farmers level has been initiated in N.W.F.P., Punjab and Sind province. High yielding fodder trees have been planted at farmers field. Straw treatment, silage/hay making has been initiated at farmers level. Cattle feed (dairy concentrate) comprising agro-industrial by-products has also been introduced at small farmers level.
The promising areas for research and extension in feedstuffs production and utilization are listed below:
There is a great scope for increasing the fodder production by cultivating multi-cut summer fodder crops, i.e., bajra-(millet) napier hybrid, Sudan grass and sorghum hybrids (Sudex). Provision of quality seed of clovers, oats, maize and sorghum will enhance the production of fodder in the country.
Ley farming system, i.e., combining wheat and leguminous fodder can also be tried. Hitherto unexplored sources of feed, i.e., agricultural and industrial by-products/wastes having great potential as feed could be exploited. The use of urea and ammonia to enhance the digestibility of roughages (crop residues) has a great scope. Molasses, abduntly available source of energy for livestock can be fed to livestock by mixing it with other feed ingredients or incorporating urea into it. Fruit and vegetable waste area also potential sources of feed for livestock.
There is a great scope for the development of ranges in Pakistan. There are a great many species of fodder trees that could be planted or at least protected for animal feeding purpose. the cornerstone for developing sound livestock and poultry industries is processed feed. The availability of processed feed would enable the stock-owners to exploit the potential of their livestock and tide over critical periods of fodder scarcity.
The coarse grains play an important role in successful livestock/poultry industries. There is also a great scope for developing high yielding varieties of course grains, i.e., maize, sorghum, millets, barley, oats etc. in Pakistan.
SUMMARY
Currently, livestock in Pakistan are getting 25 percent and 60 percent of the required amount of TDN and DCP, respectively. The gap between the supply and the demand of the nutrients will further widen. The basic constraint in developing livestock industry is acute shortage of feed.
Several attempts were made to develop and manage ranges on scientific lines. But most of the programmes failed due to harsh environment, socio-economic problems, meager financial resources, ill-planned research projects and disinterest on the part of personnel concerned due to lack of incentives.
Through the research efforts of the animal nutritionists working in agricultural universities and research institutes, manufacturing of formula feed was initiated which helped in the establishment of the poultry industry in the country. Lead was also taken by the animal nutritionists working at the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad and Livestock Production Research Institute, Bahadurnagar (Okara) in Punjab province in formulating dairy concentrates comprising agro-industrial by-products and introducing the same in the market. This motivated the manufacturers of poultry feeds to manufacture dairy concentrates on commercial basis, but it failed due to poor quality.
An extension service programme related to growing and use of fodder crops/grasses and agro-industrial by-products in livestock feeding was initiated through Village Livestock Associations. But it failed due to administrative problems.
Measures for enhanced fodder/forage production and exploitation of other non-conventional feed resources have been suggested.
At the national level the National Livestock Development Committee formulated policy for livestock/poultry production in the country. The livestock and poultry producers are exempt from income tax, import of exotic breeding animals/brids, machinery and equipment for livestock/poultry industries are allowed duty free. To encourage the livestock industry, the government is leasing out large sreas of state land for livestock farming and loans are advanced for the purpose.
The government regulates the export of feed ingredients keeping in view the local demand. Quality standards of different feed ingredients have been fixed by the Pakistan Standard Institute. To ensure quality and safety of formula feeds, the Punjab Animal Compound Feeding Stuff Act has been passed.
The government policies have helped in the establishment of formula feed industry thereby encouraging poultry industry in the country. The dairy and meat industry is also coming up.
Research on feed resources has been and is in progress in agricultural universities and Livestock/Poultry Production Research Institutes. The promising areas for research and extension in feed stuffs production and utilization have been highlighted.
There is great scope for enhanced feed, fodder and forage production in Pakistan. Hitherto unexplored sources of feeds could be exploited. In the near future the formula feed industry will be a cornerstone for developing sound livestock and poultry industry.
REFERENCES
Akram, Muhammad, 1986, Private Communication
Bhatti, M. Banaras, 1986, Status papaer on national Cooperative Fodder Research, National Agricultural Research Centre, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad
Gill, Raza Ali, M.D. Ahmad, Zaheer, Ahmad and Najaf Ali Khan, 1979, Study of Livestock Development Potential in Pakistan, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad.
Muhamad, Noor, and M.S. Naz, 1985, Range Management and Forage Research in Pakistan, Progressive Farming. 5 (5): 44–51.
Efren T. Baconawa*
INTRODUCTION
The post-war introduction of modern types and breeds of chicken, ducks, pigs and cattle has brought about a number of second-generation problems. The new types and breeds of animals required adaptation into a new environment, improved feeding and nutrition, breeding, veterinary care, housing and management. Feeding and nutrition, supply procurement and inventory, processing and distribution of feeds and feedstuffs required a new approach in management.
Thus, the slow gradual transformation of the subsistence livestock agriculture of the Philippines after the World War II into a more advanced stage brought about increased egg and meat production, but at the same time, it spawned a number of problems affecting the livestock and feed industries. In the pre-war era, the small-scale poultry and pig raisers simply let loose their animals in the backyard and/or the neighbourhood, giving the birds some grains and the pigs some slops out of rice and corn bran mixed with table left-over, thereby, allowing the animals to roam around to forage for themselves.
As a result of these planned changed which were encouraged to improve the industry, a new type of animal husbandry and feedmilling had emerged, and thus, the livestock and feed industries were born during the second half of the 1940s to the mid-1950s. With these two industries, coming as they did during the import restriction decade, a number of second generation problems emerged, which up to this time continue to bear pressure on these industries.
Problems and Constraints of the Livestock and Feed Industries
Among the major problems that beset the two industries are:
1) recurring shortage of feedstuffs, particularly soybean oil meal, meat meal, and yellow corn which have to be imported abroad, but which have increasingly become costly to import; 2) lack of a long-range policy on pasture lease; 3) lack of a long-term research on indigenous feedstuffs; 4) lack of technology transfer on forage and pasture development and utilization; 5) worsening peace and order situation in the countryside; 6) lack of breeder animals to develop the beef and dairy industry; and 7) lack of credit facilities for the livestock and feed industries.
Post-war Livestock Development Programmes and Strategies
The Philippines had since after the war relied on importation of feedstuffs like soybean oil meal, fish meal and meat meal which were then cheap to import up to the 1960s. Since the 1970s, however, the prices of imported protein feedstuffs have been continually rising with yearly importation costs now well beyond US$200 million. In 1984, for example, the estimated cost of imported feedstuffs was US$267,196,000, while the export receipts from feedstuffs was only US$44,930,000.
In the early 1970s, the Department of Agriculture and Food and the University of the Philippines at Los Banos tried to encourage soybean production, but the programme could not take off. Again, in the early 1980s, the Department of Agriculture and Food revived the programme in cooperation with the College of Agriculture and the Institute of Plant Breeding, both of the University of the Philippines at Los Banos (UPLB) and the Philippine Council for Agricultural and Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), with the cooperation of two private agribusiness firms that went into soybean seed research and production. But the programme has not taken off.
There were attempts in the 1950s and 1970s to encourage the development of the fish meal industry, but the spiralling prices of fish as raw materials for fishmeal production got underway. With the favourable prices of fish for the table, the fishermen have generally chosen to sell their catch for the fish food market rather than for fishmeal production; thus, fishmeal production today is still very small.
There were also attempt in the 1970s to encourage the production of mungbean, winged bean and yam as alternative sources of protein feedstuffs, but the programme is still partly in the research stage.
In response to the rising demand for “ipil - ipil” (Leucaena leucocephala Linn.) for both the domestic and the foreign markets, the government machinery (Department of Agriculture and Food, Department of Energy and Natural Resources, National Power Corporation, Ministry of Human Settlements) encouraged the planting of this leguminous tree crop for reforestation, feed production and for dendro-thermal use. However, in 1985 to 1986 the jumping lice pest attacked the ipil-ipil in the country and, thus, wrecked the plantations.
There was an attempt to improve the range and the pasture areas for cattle, swamp buffalo, goat and sheep production in the country through overseeding with legumes from the 1970s to the 1980s, but the Schofield stylosanthes that was planted all over the Islands was wiped out by anthracnose during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Two years ago, the Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) introduced an alternative pasture legume, the Cook stylo, which is supposedly not susceptible to anthracnose. It is still in the research stage.
In order to increase the production of energy feedstuffs, the Department of Agriculture and Food has continuously provided support for the production of grains (rice, corn, and sorghum) wince the last 1960s.
Long-term Policy on Pasture Lease
Cattle ranchers in the country have long been waiting for a favourable pasture lease agreement. The ranchers have been hesitant to develop their pasture lease because of what they consider as loophole in the pasture lease agreement. Ranchers consider the term of the pasture lease agreement as onerous, because while the lease may be granted for 10, 20 or, 25 years, renewable for the same period, the government may revoke the pasture lease agreement if the government would need the area for, say, development of watershed for a multi-purpose dam for hydro-electric generation, irrigation, and fish production.
Besides, even if the pasture area is fully developed by the leasee, the lending institutions would not consider the land as a collateral in favour of the leasee.
Thus, for years since the 1960s, the ranchers have been petitioning the government for better terms of the pasture lease agreement, burt their pleas has evidently fallen on deaf ears. The total area covered by Pasture Lease Agreement (PLA) is less than 500,000 ha.
Planned Research on Indigenous Feedstuffs
For years, the country has been exporting substantial amounts of feedstuffs in the form of copra meal, copra cake, cane molasses, wheat bran, and wheat pollard to other countries. On the other hand, the copra meal importing countries have undertaken research to utilize these cheap feedstuffs for animal feeding. In turn, the copra meal is imported back in the form of livestock products like meat and milk. And the Philippines is importing such livestock products.
During the mid-1980s, efforts were taken to develop a process of using more amounts of copra meal, copra cake, and molasses in the feed ration for poultry, pigs, goats, and cattle. Work was also done on increasing the protein content of copra meal and copra cake through enzymatic process. The same treatment was done on cassava meal to improve its protein content. In both cases, the technology package is now being used by some small- and medium-sized farmers like the Liliw Livestock Raisers Association in Liliw, Laguna Province.
The Bureau of Animal Industry today has a newly constructed Non-conventional Feed Development and Outreach Center for training production technicians and farmers to use non-conventional feeds.
Technology Transfer
For years, planned technology transfer on forage and pasture development and utilization has been undertaken by the Department of Agriculture and Food through the Bureau of Animal Industry. Government stock farms, breeding stations and breeding centers and private ranchers have taken steps to gradually improve their pastures. Reliance on the use of indigenous grasses growing on the pasture lands has been slowly giving way to pasture improvement. Many ruminant animal raisers would introduce improved pastures for their animals to grow up faster to disposable age on improved pastures. Production economics studies on pasture improvement were undertaken which showed the benefits of improving the pastures.
Improving the Livestock and Feed Industries
A number of government-supported programmes launched in the 1970s have contributed to the improvement of the livestock and feed industries as follows:
Supervised credit for smallholder farmers - The four supervised credit programmes namely; 1) “Bakahang Barangay” Fattening; 2) “Bakahang Barangay” Cow-Calf; 3) “Kambingang Barangay” and 4) “Kalabaw ng Baranagay” have been helpful to the livestock industry. These programmes helped raise the productivity of smallholder farmers, raised their incomes, and provided them with work animals.
Livestock markets - The establishment of livestock auction markets in 10 cities, provinces and municipalities has been provided the small farmers with better outlets and fair prices for their animals (buffaloes, cattle, goats, pigs and horses). Prices received by farmers at the livestock auction markets are based on weights and grades, because the animals are being graded and weighed before they are put on sale.
Accredited abattoirs - Pursuant to Presidential Decree No. 2, the National Meat Inspection Commission, (NMIC) was created in 1972 for the purpose of nationalizing the meat inspection service in the country. Since 1972, some 135 accredited abattoirs were set up by local governments of provinces, cities, municipalities and private companies. These abattoirs are classified into three classes: “A) class for export abattoirs; “A” for national abattoirs; and “B” for local abattoir. As a result of this undertaking, the nationalization of the meat inspection service has been able to provide the consumers fresh and wholesome meat.
Food quality control service - Based also on P.D. No. 7, the Animal Feed Control Division was created in 1972 for the primary purpose of registration of feedmills, feed sellers and feed importers; for the purpose of supervising feedmillers, feed sellers, and feed importers through collecting feed samples for chemical analysis to monitor the quality of the various classes of feeds and their grades.
The same division undertakes research and development, production of feedstuffs for governement livestock projects and trina livestock technicians the private feedmillers, livestock raisers, and dairy producers on feed production, testing and utilization.
Human resource development for livestock and feed industries - In order to upgrade the technical capabilities of the livestock extension service of the government and to raise the productivity of the industry, a number of training centers for human resource development have been set up in cooperation with international organizations and other countries by way of bilateral agreements.
For this purpose, the following centers for specialized training have been set up and have been conducting training sessions, namely:
Annual livestock and poultry survey - In 1976, the Bureau of Agricultral Economics (BAEcon) and the Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) teamed up to conduct an annual livestock and poultry survey for the purpose of collecting meaningful data for planning and management purposes. The two bureaus also conducted an abattoir survey twice and feed survey in the late 1970s.
Annual livestock and poultry celebration - As a means to encourage the livestock sector to move forward, a National Livestock and Poultry Week Celebration was decreed for celebration as a national annual activity, starting in 1956.
Establishment of disease-free zones - The establishment of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) - Committee on Food and Forestry (COFAF), the Food and Agriculture Organization Regional Animal Production and Health Commission for Asia and the Pacific (APHCA), and the Asian Productivity Organization (APO) has brought about cooperative activities among the countries in the region.
The establishment of disease-free zones for foot-and-nouth disease in some parts of the country has enabled the country to export slaughter pigs and breeder cattle.
The country's membership with the FAO-APHCA comprising of 13 member countries has enabled the country to share expertise with other members, particularly on livestock production.
And the country's membership with the Asian Productivity Organization (APO) comprising of 17 countries has enabled the country to share expertise with other members, also on livestock production.
Not Very Successful
A number of programmes which were formulated and implemented in aid to the livestock and feed industries have not been very successful. Some of these are the following:
Feed rootcrops - In the early 1980s, the Bureau of Animal Industry as lead agency attempted to encourage rootcrops production for animal feed. In the initial stage, sweet potato and cassava cuttings from high yielding varities developed by the Visayas State College of Agriculture (VISCA) were dispersed to different poultry and pork producing provinces to establish rootcrops seedbanks. Several seedbanks were set up and distribution of seedstock was started.
Livestock commodity loan - Since 1954, the government has been dispersing work swamp buffaloes, cattle, goats, pigs, and poultry to small farmers, to be paid in kind. However, the doleout mentality of the people has greatly affected the programme resulting in very poor repayment. Moreover, the programme became intertwined with politics, and this further eroded the credibility of the programme.
Artificial insemination - Artificial insemination on cattle and buffaloes started in the late 1950s with the Bureau of Animal Industry behind it. However, transport of semen within the archipelago, seperated into over 7,000 islands, proved very difficult and costly, especially to the far-flung provinces. Conception rate in artificial insemination for cattle and buffalo has been very low.
Biogas - In the mid-1970s, the governement tried to promote the installation of biogas digesters among smallholder families raising a few pigs, cattle, or buffaloes or a combination of these livestock species. But the programme did not take off. The small farmers could obtain firewood and buy cheap kerosene oil for lighting. Moreover, the cost of constructing a biogas digester is rather costly for small farmers. However, some big pig producers put up their own biogas digesters. For example, Naya Farms, which is a subsidiary of Liberty Flour Mills, set up a series of biogas digesters using pig mature coming from the 50,000 pigs being raised in Antipolo, Rizal. All the electricity requirement of the piggery farm is generated by generators using biogas as fuel.
Fishmeal - Notwithstanding the large and long fishing shelf of the Philippines, the country is not producing cheap fish for fishmeal production. Several attempts have been make to produce fishmeal in self-sufficient quantity, but up to this time, the country is still dependent on imported soybean oil meal and fishmeal.
Milk collection schemes - The milk collection schemes set up by government as early as the mid-1960s up to the later half of the 1980s have not been very successful. Two enabling laws, R.A. 4041 and Batas Bilang 21, had been passed by the law-making body, purposely to develop the dairy industry. However, the milk being produced today from local cows, buffaloes, and goats is much less than the amount of milk produced in the mid-1960s.
Fodder trees and azolla - The country pioneered in the propagation of “ipil-ipil” for feed production as early as the 1960s. The rapid growth of ipil-ipil plantations designed to supply feeds, fuel for geothermal plants, and firewood helped encourage production and export of ipil-ipil leafmeal pellets. Two years ago, however, jumping files attached the ipil-ipil trees everywhere in the Philippines.
Azolla has been also propagated for fertilizing rice and for feed to animals, but it has not become a very popular source of protein feed for animals.
POLICIES AFFECTING THE LIVESTOCK AND FEED INDUSTRIES
Quite a number of national policies affect the livestock and feed industries. During the last 20 years the government poured substantial financial subsidy for agriculture, livestock and fish production. Since February 1986, however, the government has adopted a policy of import liberalization and privatization, which includes the sale of government corporations operating in competition with private business.
The following briefly present existing government policies affecting the livestock and feed industries.
Importation of Feedstuffs and Breeding Animals
Since the colonial days, the country has adopted the policy of importing feedstuffs and breeding animals from other countries, following the law of comparative advantage.
But during the pre-war days, government research institutions had conducted studies on development of suitable livestock and plant species. In the area of livestock, the UP College of Agriculture developed a breed of chicken, a breed of pig, and a breed of cattle, using a combination of indigenous and exogenous blood lines. But during World War II, the seedstock of these animals were lost.
The government has not yet adopted a policy to develop suitable types and breeds of animals for the Philippines. Neither has it already adopted a policy to develop the feedgrains industry for self-sufficiency so that the country will not have to import feedstuffs like soybean oil meal, fish meal, meat meal, yellow corn and wheat.
Thus, the country continues to rely on imported protein feedstuffs and breeder animals like chickens, ducks, pigs, goats, sheep, cattle, horses, and buffaloes.
Importation of Milk and Milk Products
Since the colonial era, the Philippines has depended on imported milk and milk products for domestic supply, with importation comprising 98–99 percent of domestic consumption. The amount of milk produced locally by Magnolia Dairy Farm and Monterey Farms Corporation and those of the small dairy farmers' all over the country make up only about 1 – 2 percent of total consumption.
In the mid-1960s, the government adopted a policy to develop the dairy industry with the passage of R.A. 4041. A dozen milkshed areas with milk collecting stations were set up in various parts of the country. However, lack of financing for milk production dampened the enthusiasm of those who responded to the call.
Again, in 1979, the government adopted a policy to develop the dairy industry when Parliament passed Bill No. 21, authorizing the creation of the Philippine Dairy Corporation. This body, placed under the administrative supervision of the Department of Agriculture and Food, obtained financial assistance from the International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) for its smallholder cattle project.
The corporation imported dairy animals (Holstein Freisian Sahiwal) for dispersal to farmers, dispersed the animals to farmers to be paid in kind, collected milk for processing and sale to the public, but after a few years, the Corporation seemed to have slowed down its operations. Its support programme services such as artificial insemination, animal dispersal, milk collection, processing and distribution are, for all intents and purposes, practically no longer ongoing.
As a consequence of the absence of a dairy industry, the country has repeatedly suffered from milk shortages. Whenever there were strikes in the multi-national milk plants (Carnation, Holland Milk, Nestle, Magnolia, etc.), milk shortage would occur. When the Chernobyl incident occurred in April 1985, canned milk and milk powder were in short supply in the market; the stocks were withdrawn from the market on instructions of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), because some brands imported from Europe were found to have high radio-active counts.
When the Holland Milk Company workers went on strike in May and June, 1986, there was milk shortage in the market.
As a result, prices of milk in tins or in tetrapak cartons fluctuated every now and then, but the tendency is always for the prices to go up and never to go down.
Rice and Corn Production
To ensure self-sufficiency in cereals (rice and corn), the government has, since the mid-1960s, provided support for rice and corn production. To encourage the production of rice and corn, the government subsidized fertilizers, rice and corn seed, irrigation water, extension services, and credit facilities. The government has consistently provided support price (floor price) for rice and corn growers and controlled prices for rice and corn consumers.
As a result of government's support price for cereal production, the livestock and feed industries benefitted from the programme in terms of greater availability of supply of rice bran, corn bran, and corn or feed to animals.
Rehabilitation of the Coconut Industry
Millions of coconut trees in the country are too old and are no longer productive. In order to save the coconut industry, the government through the Philippine Coconut Authority, the coconut Federation of the Philippines, and the United Coconut Planters Bank, worked out a programme for coconut rehabilitation, namely; to replace the old and unproductive ones with the Ivory Coast varieties of coconuts.
Production credit facilities, research, and extension services have been provided by the government.
Although the new varieties of coconuts are not yet all bearing, the coconut revitalization programme has helped the industry to produce more copra meal and copra cake.
And, in line with the revitalization programme for the coconut industry, more copra is being processed into oil, for export than sold.
Today, there are no more shortages of copra meal and copra cake in the local markets. Feedmillers and livestock raisers have adequate supply of those feedstuffs.
However, copra meal and copra cake are still used at the rates they have been used in the animal feed ration, that is, at 20 percent of the total weight of the feed.
Diversification in the Sugarcane Industry
The government support for the sugar industry has been very substantial. The Philippine National Bank, the Development bank of the Philippines, the Land Bank of the Philippines, the Planters Bank and the rural banks have provided heavy financial support for the sugar industry.
However, in spite of the sustained support of government for this premier industry, the fluctuations in the world market prices for sugar has greatly affected the sugar industry. And the worse time was during the 1970s and early 1980s.
Sugar planters in the Philippines were spending 10–12 cents to produce a pound of sugar, while the international market price for sugar was only 5–6 cents per pond. Thus, the sugar industry in the Philippines collapsed somewhat. As a result, considerable reduction in the area planted to sugarcane has occured.
The net effect was that prices of cane molasses in the market rose and became expensive as animal feed. The reduction in sugarcane acreage has brought down the production output of cane molasses and, thus, prices of molasses have gone up.
In the meanwhile, sugarcane tops, whole canes, and cane molasses are still available for feeding animals.
An experimental feeding trial was conducted on the use of sugarcane juice as energy feed source for pigs, and the result proved promising. It confirms the results that have been obtained in the Caribbean and the Latin American countries during the past 20 years.
The Bureau of Animal Industry and the University of the Philippines joined hands in spearheading the research work and demonstration for this project. If prices of corn continue to go up and the import prices of soybean oil meal continue to rise, there is a possibility for the small farmers and the medium and large piggeries to raise pigs on sugarcane juice supplemented with soybean oil meal, and other beans like mungbeans, winged beans, and yam.
Pasture Lease Tenure
Pasture lands in the country are leased by government to cattle raisers as an aid to develop the cattle industry. One could obtain a pasture permit for a period of one year, renewable for another year. One could also obtain a pasture lease for 10 years, for 20 years, or for 25 years, renewable for a similar period, with very little annual fees.
But, while it is fairly easy to secure a lease on government pasture lands, the pasture lease agreement, however, has a rider, providing for the revocation of the least agreement in case government sees an urgent need for use of the land for reforestation, for parks and wild-life, for watershed, or for construction of multi-purpose dams to generate electricity and to provide irrigation water for rice farmers.
Thousands of ha of pasture lands leases to ranchers had been revoked and used for the above purposes. This seemingly onerous provision in the pasture lease agreement has discouraged leaseholders from developing the lands leased to them. This has been responsible for the low carrying capacity of the pasture areas in the hands of cattle ranchers.
Unless the pasture lease tenure issue is settled, cattle ranchers will find no incentive to invest large amounts of capital to develop their areas to raise the pasture carrying capacity. Ranchers will continue to rely on letting their animals graze on the native grasses, which are intermittently burned during dry season to renew growth.
FUTURE PROSPECTS OF THE LIVESTOCK AND FEED INDUSTRIES
Medium-term Prospects
Monogastric animals - Small-scale raisers of poultry (chickens, ducks, pigeons and quails) and pigs are gradually bowing out to the medium-scale and large-scale raisers and the integrators (those who operate flour mills, feedmills, poultry hatcheries, contract-growing operations, poultry-dressing plants, food and meat processing plants, etc.)
From the 1940s to the 1960s, the small farmers milled their own rice and corn at home, or they brought them to the village rice and corn millers, paying for the services and brought home their rice and corn, along with the rice bran and the corn bran for use as feed for their chickens, ducks and pigs. With energy feeds available from their produce, they were able to raise chickens, ducks and pigs at their backyard.
Today, the small farmers sell their rice and corn to the Chinese merchants, to the Filipino middlemen, or to the government through the National Food Authority (NFA) and the farmers get cash for their rice and corn. The middlemen who buy rice and corn would mill them for the sale to the public. The small farmers now buy rice and corn from the retail stores. If they want to raise animals, they have to buy compound feeds from the feed retailers.
Under this situation, the medium-scale, the large-scale poultry and pig producers and the integrators are slowly taking over the production of eggs, chickens, ducks, and pork from the small raisers. In the meantime, the prices of eggs, poultry and pork are continuously going up beyond the ability of the poor to pay. Consequently, the growth of the poultry and pig production will slow down, as only the middle and upper classes of society will be in a position to pay for the price of eggs, poultry, pork and beef. Therefore, overall per capita consumption of these items might continue to decrease.
