PART ONE:
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

I. Project Background

1. 1 Introduction

The Chinese Government has since 1978, through the Three-North Shelterbelt Program (TNSP), implemented an elaborate network of shelterbelts and forestry plantations ("The Great Green Wall") across Northern China, with the objective of protecting agricultural and pastoral lands, as well as human settlements, from wind and water erosion. This P¨rogramme proposes to reforest/revegetate 4.06 million km2 (1.33 million km2 of desert lands) or 42% of the country supporting 170 million primarily rural, farmer based people. The TNSP objectives are to improve the soil and water conservation of the Three-North Region, moderating the effect of the strong winds and desertification through increased forest and vegetation cover and enlarge the limited resource base for the increased production of industrial wood supplies and fuelwood to meet current and future wood requirements. Between 1978 - 2000, an estimated 20 million ha was established under the TNSP through planting or aerial seeding. However survival, growth, yields and protection to adjoining agricultural lands were sub-optimal due to poor site/species/provenance/clone matching; limited genetic diversity in large scale plantings; and poor nursery, site preparation, establishment, maintenance, silviculture and protection practices.

From June 1989 to May 1990 a Preparatory Mission was carried out funded by the Government of Belgium (US$ 351 000), to target objectives and areas that could benefit from an International Cooperation Project on technical assistance in applied forestry research.

As a result, the Project GCP/CPR/009 (Phase 1), jointly financed by the Governments of China (RMB Yuan 12,9 million) and Belgium (US$ 4.88 million) was implemented starting in April 1991 through December 1996 with technical assistance from the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO). It concentrated its activities on the Korqin Sandy Lands, a sub-region of the Three-North Shelterbelt Programme, located in the north-east of Inner Mongolia.

1. 2 The First Phase

The main outputs of the First Phase were:

• Creation of poplar gene banks, and identification of some clones with superior performance

• Preparation of a long-term poplar breeding programme

• Introduction of some promising pine species and provenances

• Development of appropriate planting techniques for poplars

• Collection of data on climatic conditions and soils

• Start of trials on improved nursery, planting and tending practices

• Preparation of some technical guidelines

• Procurement of machinery suitable for mechanised forestry operations

• Trials with mechanised afforestation techniques, and development of prototype for the planting of unrooted poplar cuttings

• Establishment of workshops in all outstations

• Training of staff through on the job training, study tours, fellowships etc.

• Data collection and processing in specially developed databases

• Identification and management of pests and diseases

The project's headquarters is Tongliao in Inner Mongolia with four branches in Naiman (Inner Mongolia), Tongyu (Jilin), Zhangwu and Linghai (Liaoning).

To cover the period of 15 months after the conclusion of Phase I and the start of Phase II (April 1998), a bridging grant of $200,000 was provided by the Donor.

1. 3 The Second Phase

The second Phase of the Project became operational for a 5 year period until December 2002. The Belgian Government provided US$ 1 690 836 to cover Phase II with the contribution of the Chinese Government equal to RMB Yuan 10 million.

During the Second Phase, the Project continued to support the TNSP, concentrating its activities in the Naiman Branch with smaller programmes at Tongyu and Zhangwu and discontinuing the involvement in Linghai. after refocussing of the Project's objectives on the more difficult afforestation zones.

The development objective of the project remained identical to the one of thee previous phase:

"To enhance soil and water conservation in the area of the Korqin Sandy Lands in order to improve the socio-economic well-being of the population living in the area by increasing and managing, in a sustainable manner, the amount of forest products and other services while ensuring that the environment is protected".

The Project shifted away from the conventional poplar reforestation to revegetation and restoration of typically degraded sites of Korqin, including stabilisation of sand dunes. Research and demonstrations, including mechanisation trials, and tree breeding, conservation and afforestation with indigenous and exotic poplars was continued.

Shelterbelt designs were developed including the use of tree and shrub species to provide fodder for grazing animals, most important for the local economy and for the protection of the local environment.

Pilot plantations to test the new techniques developed by the project have been established, making use of a site classification designed and implemented by the Project for integrated land use of the Korqin sandy lands.

The site classification map proved to be a most useful tool not only for the planning of afforestation and revegetation activities but for all local stakeholders involved in land-use and rural development.

Finally, afforestation models addressing the needs of the various users of forests and forest-products and -services, and according to the site-classes have been developed, costs and inputs evaluated and financial analysis fine-tuned.

During the Second Phase an integrated approach to the problems of the Region is being undertaken involving not only the technical aspects of production as such, but also integrating environmental, economic and social aspects of the rural production system.

Selected techniques and models are tested in pilot plantings to enable the project to confidently propose procedures to the authorities for implementation on a larger scale.

The Immediate Objectives of the Second Phase are:

i. Conservation of native poplar species and implementation of a poplar breeding programme adapted to North-eastern China

ii. Introduction and selection of conifers and other species/provenances

iii. Development of new re-vegetation / afforestation techniques, through pilot plantations and mechanised trials in shelterbelt country

iv. Collection and analysis of data relevant to costs and benefits of improved afforestation techniques, production of site classification maps and preparation of Afforestation Models with financial analysis that may be used for the preparation of a big-scale Investment Project

v. Training of staff and dissemination of information: overall institutional support and strengthening to improve capacity for data collection, analysis, planning and in the preparation of long-term strategies and programmes

Through conservation, introduction, breeding and improvement of poplars, pines as well as other forest resources suitable for Korqin Sandy Lands, the Project is aimed at:

• developing suitable mechanized nursery and afforestation techniques for arid conditions,

• exploring cost-effective and sustainable use of sandy lands and integrated rehabilitation approaches,

• selecting superior tree species for the Korqin Sandy Lands and the TNSP, with fast growth and high resistance,

• enlarging forest resources, setting up examples of demonstration and extension, so as to conserve forest reources on sandy lands, to combat land desertification and to enhace living and income standards of the local population.

1. 4 Project Implementation

The Project resorts under the Division of International Cooperation of the State Forest Administration and under the Representation of FAO in Beijing. The Forest Department of the FAO headquarters in Rome is in charge of technical backstopping (FORM). Project staff in the Branches is seconded from the Three North Bureau, from the Forest Bureau and Forest Research Institutes and from Forest Farms. At the Project HQ level personnel is from the Three North Bureau and from the Tongliao Forest Bureau and Forest Research Institute.

A "Co-ordination Committee", composed of representatives of the State Forestry Administration, the Three North Bureau, Forestry Agencies and Governments in Inner Mongolia, Liaoning and Jilin Provinces approves spending and allocation of Chinese funds.

The day-to-day management of the Project is in the hands of the National Project Director, assisted by a visiting Chief Technical Advisor.

A mid-term and at the end of the Project, evaluation missions are organised, composed by a representative of each of the involved parties (China, Belgium and FAO).

Each of the Project Branches is composed of a Forest Farm, a Forest Bureau (FB) and a Forest Research Institute (FRI) (see Table 1.4.1).

Table 1.4.1 : Structure of the Branches.

1. 5 Technical Support Institutes

Chinese Academy of Forestry : mainly involved with providing support to the tree-breeding activities of the Projct and associate with the land-use and site-classification maps

Beijing Forestry University: many national consultants to the Project are professors at the Beijing Forestry University; also involved with the development and manufacturing of mechanised afforestation machines

Three North Bureau: technical and administrative support provided through detached officers, on a punctual basis

National and International consultants (for list see Annex 5) perform visits to the Project and give technical assistance and formulate guidelines in the fields of their specialisation for the work to be carried out and provide on the job training.

II. Natural history and topography of Korqin Sandy Lands¹

The Korqin Sandy Lands cover an area of 189, 000 km² from 41^º38' to 46^º03' N and 117^º33' to 125^º01' E . It stretches over 400 km from North to South from Chaoyang City of Liaoning Province to Tuquan County of Inner Mongolia and over 440km wide from East to West from Linxi County of Inner Mongolia to Qianguo County of Jilin Province.

The deposition of the Korqin sandsheet and its subsequent re-modelling into northern sandy belts and southern sandsheet with closed depressions, date from two successive periods during an older and colder paleo-climate, related to the Last Glacial Period of the Late Pleistocene (75,000-11,000 years before present).

Four phases are distinguished.

2. 1 Sandsheet Deposition

During the Last Glacial Period ("Würm"), climate in the area was extremely cold, and the polar ice-caps were extending much further south into Siberia, North-America and Europe. As a consequence, the alluvial NE plain, the Khinghan Mountains and the Mongolian Plateau were almost devoid of vegetation. Strong, approximately western winds blew over the plain and picked up loose sediments.

Wind transport lost its most heavy particles (loamy sand to sandy loam fraction) in the Korqin region, while the lighter loess, mainly composed of silt ("yellow soil"), was deposited further to the south as the loess belt of Kulun.

The Korqin sandsheet thus accumulated through aeolian deposits on the alluvial NE Plain in the east and on the slightly sloping footslopes of the Greater Khingan mountains in the west.

2. 2 Deflation and Sandsheet Remodelling

During a second phase, probably the maximum of the Last Glacial Period (25,000-11,000 years before present), still under cold and peri-glacial conditions, vegetation was sparse on the sandsheet and strong WNW to W winds removed and remodelled part of the sandy cover. In those days human influence was minimal and the process was purely a climatic or geological wind erosion phase.

The sandy belts of the NE Korqin subregion are remnants of the deflation phase, which eliminated the sandy cover from the wide WNW-ESE oriented corridors, in between the sandy belts. The underlying alluvial lowland plains were re-exposed at the surface.

In the Southern Korqin Region, wind action delineated parallel belts of W-E aligned, elongated, closed depressions, at places re-exposing the alluvial lowland floor.

The main branches of the W-E-flowing Xiliao river system have cut deep valleys in the Korqin Sandy Lands during the Last Glacial Maximum, as sea level was about 100 m lower than today. These over-deepened valleys have been gradually filled in with thick layers of alluvial sediments during the Holocene (since 11,000 years ago).

2. 3 Natural Revegetation and Topsoil Formation

During the Holocene (11,000 years ago till now), the climate became substantially more humid and warmer. The rolling loamy sand to sandy loam Korqin Lands were stabilized rapidly by a relatively dense vegetation, mainly grassland with dispersed elm trees (elm woodland).

Climatic changes from desert to vegetated land and vice versa are very rapid, spanning no more than a few hundred years.

Thousands of years of equilibrium in the Korqin Sandy Lands, are witnessed today by thick, dark, humiferous topsoils in non-degraded parts of (mainly in the NE subregion of) the sandsheet.

3. 4 Historical Desertification

Opposite to the diversity between the Northern and the Southern Korqin Regions - modelled by natural forces - exists a W-E variability, related to human activity under the present-day climate, with its strong, dominantly NW winds in spring.

The destruction of the natural vegetation cover began in historical times, about 1,000 years ago. The gradual, but since this century accelerating desertification, is caused mainly by human activities: overgrazing, wood cutting, and shifting agriculture on sandy lands.

• In the 10th century, the Liao Kingdom was established in this still fertile region, engaging in both agriculture and animal husbandry. There were tall trees and luxuriant grasses. From the middle of the 10th century, the sandy lands have been subjected to rigorous cultivation and grazing. Around farmlands, pastures and settlements "white sand hills" appeared.

• By the Jin Dynasty, in the 12th century, the forests had disappeared.

• By the beginning of the 17th century there was a slight recovery, but from the middle of the 19th century, the Qing Dynasty pursued a policy of reclaiming wastelands and forests and grasslands were destroyed again. In addition, the hazards of eolian erosion and deposition became severe in and around the sandy lands.

At present little remains of the natural vegetation: a sparsely wooded grassland, with relicts of poplar (Popolus simonii), willow (Salix matsudana, S. gordejevii...), wild peach (Prunus armeniaca) and elm trees (Ulmus pumila and other spp.).

The amount of shifting sands in the Korqin, or the degree of desertification, increases from E to W.

2. 5 Topography

The original landscape with W-E oriented, elongated, closed depressions in the SE Korqin subregion has been well conserved, but widespread shifting agriculture and overgrazing are nowadays accelerating degradation. If no measures are taken now, this region soon will resemble the landscape described below.

Towards the West, shifting sands have completely obliterated the elongated depression pattern.

Destruction of the natural vegetation exposed bare sandy surfaces. Due to wind action, deep circular blowouts wereformed and still continuiing to form. The fine fraction is carried away in suspension, but the sands accumulate in dunes. Due to the elimination of the vegetation cover, vegetated parabolic dunes quickly evolve to desert-like barchan dunes.

• Vegetated parabolic dunes have a typical U-shape ("hairpin" dunes) dunes. The opening of the "U" is oriented towards the NW winds. Migration is very slow and most of the sands are still fixed. On aerial photographs of Weiliansu (1976), vegetated parabolic dunes still dominate which is not the case today.

• Barchan ("crescent") dunes and barchanoid chains have a "C"-shape. The opening of the "C", or the wings of the dune, are oriented in a down-wind direction, away from the dominant NW winds.

Shifting agriculture has greatly disappeared in the barchan dune areas; no wonder, considering the advanced stage of degradation and the total absence of soil fertility. However, if no measures are taken in other sandy areas, soon they will become equally unproductive.

The height of the sand dunes varies between 3 and 10 m on average; some sand ridges are below 3m. The local inhabitants call the sand dunes over 3 m "Tuo" (higher dunes), the ones below 3 m "Zhao" (lower dunes), and the low lands between sand dunes "Dian". They constitute the main elements of the landscape.

Korqin's elevation is lower in the east and higher in the west; the highest altitude (from 600-700 m above sea level) occurs in Wenniute County and the lowest in Kezuohouqi Banner (about 250 m above sea level).

In 1998-99, the Project processed satellite data on the central region (with a total area of 114, 000 km² ) of the Korqin Sandy Lands - between 42º20' and 44º50' north latitude, and 117º15' and 123º40'east longitude). The results show that desertified lands have reached a total of 38 700 km² or nearly 34% of the surveyed area. (See table 2.5.1). Among Deseretified lands, wind-eroded land occupies 85% of the total (See Table 2.5.2)

Table 2.5.1 : Main land-uses in the Korqin

Table 2.5.2 : Type and area of desertified land in Korqin

In addition to climate and geological factors, the population increases and human destruction also have a direct tie with the desertification.

III. The Physical and Biological Environment of the

Korqin Sandy Lands

3. 1. Climate

Located to the east of DaXinganling mountains, the Korqin Sandy Lands are under the influence of the monsoon circulation of the Southeast Pacific Ocean and the control of Mongolian high pressure system. The climate is cold and dry in winter, windy and dry in spring, warm and rainy in summer, dry and serene in autumn, and in general a little more humid than the sandy lands on the Inner Mongolia plateau. Table 2.1. provides a summary on the climatological information in the region.

Table 2.1.1 : Climatological data for different locations inside the Korqin Sandy Lands.

Name of banners/counties			Annual average temperature (°C)	Number of days with temperature >10°C	Accumulated temperature of days with temperature >10°C	Durationof sunshine (hours)	Duration of frost-free period (days)	Annual average precipitation (mm)
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region
	Counties of Chifeng City
		Aohan	6.4	158.5	3012.6	3020.4	169.9	408.1
		Wengniute	5.8	153.6	2864.9	2964.7	159.3	368.6
		Right Balin	4.9	149.6	2767.4	3094.1	158.5	352.5
		Left Balin	4.8	148.3	2748.4	3063.1	133.2	380.6
		Alukorqin	5.5	155.8	3030.9	3048.3	154.6	325.6
	Counties of Zhelimu League
		Naiman	6.4	163.3	3161.1	2951.2	159.1	362.3
		Kulun	6.7	165.8	3219.4	3103.6	183.1	444.7
		Kezuohou	5.8	159.4	3033.2	2868.1	157.0	446.8
		Kezuozhong	5.2	156.6	3042.8	2884.8	160.4	412.6
		Kailu County	5.9	159.4	3113.7	3111.1	157.0	338.8
		Zhalute	5.8	157.5	3037.6	2999.8	174.8	387.4
		Tongliao City	5.8	159.8	3113.8	3016.7	157.8	389.3
	Counties of Xing'an League
		Keyouzhong	5.6	158.1	3027.6	3170.6	173.6	372.5
Liaoning Province: Zhangwu County			7.1	167.4	3295.2	2836.6	154.7	519.5
Jilin Province: Tongyu County			5.1	154.0	3021.7	2927.0	145.0	405.7

Average rainfall is from 340 to 520 mm, depending on the location, 65-70% of which concentrates between June and August. The driest months are April, May and October, becoming more pronounced from southeast to northwest. Annual variation in precipitation is high and the amount of rainfall to be expected over a given year is difficult to predict. The potential evaporation is 2-3 times higher than that the amount of rainfall. Relative humidity is between 40 and 60 % on average.

The average annual temperature is from 4. 9 to 7. 1 °C and 148-167 days per year show a temperature reading over 10°C, with an accumulated temperature over 10 °C of 2860-3295 °C. The absolute minimum temperature reaches minus 42 °C. The highest temperatures occur in July, with an average of over 24°C. The frost-free period is between 133 and 183 days.

The total yearly sunshine accumulates between 2836 and 3170 hours.

The winds in Korqin Sandy Lands are strong with average wind speeds from 4. 2 to 5.9 m/second; wind speeds beyond 5m/second can cause sandstorms. There are about 25 to 40 days per year with very strong winds (above 8 Beaufort), which occur mainly in spring and winter and which are the chief agents of wind erosion. These strong winds are normally associate with the generation of dust storms.

3. 2. Soils

The soils in Korqin are mostly wind-deposited loamy sand to sandy loam. Content of organic material and soil fertility are low.

In the Northern part of the Korqin (Tongyu), with impeded waterdrainage, accumulation of salts in depressions is frequent, causing saline and/or alkaline conditions and heavier soil textures.

The sandy soils of the region developed on the basis of aeolian sand deposits and are loosely structured and highly susceptible to wind erosion when disturbed by human intervention. Marked thermal differences exist between day and night at the soil surface: during daytime, the surface heats very fast under sunshine. The ground temperature of bare sand reaches up to 40-50 °C in summer. Over night the soil surface temperature falls drastically. Many plant species in the Region, have developed fibrous sheaths or lignified dead tissue around their lower stem as a protection against these temperature changes.

Accumulation of organic matter in these sandy soils is slow, and most have a very low content of organic matter and low fertility. Due to the larger particle-size of sandy soils, no granular structures are formed. Capillarity is low and permeability high, allowing rainwater to easily percolate into the ground and in consequence, only a limited proportion of the water is evaporated. The aquifer of the soil is abundant, providing a good watersupply to the plants.

Table 3.2.1 gives some typical soil analysis for sites at the three Branches of the Project.

Table 3.2.1 : Soil analysis for three typical sites at Zhangguttai, Xinglongzhao and Tongyu.

3. 3. Vegetation

Korqin Sandy Lands vegetation presents elements belonging to the Changbai Flora, the North China Flora and the Mongolia Flora. The Great Green Valley (Daqinggou) is a rare and most diversified example of this encounter of these three Floras in the Korqin Sandy Lands.

There are about 450 kinds of higher plants in Korqin, 210 of which occur in the Great Green Valley. Among them Populus simonii, Salix matsudana, Ulmus and Prunus sibirica are the representative for the North China Flora. Fraxinus mandshurica and Betula ovalifolia in Daxinggou are representative for the Changbai Flora. is Quercus mongolicus, typical for the northeast broad-leaf forest and which grows under Daxinggou's microclimate, belongs to the East Asia Flora.

It is generally accepted that Elm open woodlands were the original natural climax vegetation in the Korqin Sandy Lands, now under threat of dissapearance.²

Main Plant Associations in Korqin Sandy Lands

The ecological succession on sandy land is totally different from the grassland eco-system that developed in the same region, but on different soils. The succession- and evolution process in the Region can be divided into the following stages:

• a pioneering stage with barren and semi-barren moving sand dune,

• semi-stabilized sandy land with grasses and shrub species,

• stabilized sandy land with semi-shrubs and shrub phytocoenose,

• a more stable and more complex phytocoenose with open woodland, shrub land and grassland.

Six major vegetation community types are distinguished:

o annual pioneering plants community, with Agriophyllum squarrosum as the major species. Some communities also include such species as Salsola collina, Bassia dasyphylla and Corispermum sp. These annual plant species bear a large quantity of seeds, disseminated by wind over vast areas. Being very invasive, they constitute pioneering plant communities on bare sandy land and moving sand dunes. They can be of practical value to stabilize sand.

o rootstock grasses communities, with Agropyron desertorum on sand ridges. The most commonly associated grass is Pennisetum flaccidum, with Calamagrostis epigeius and Carex duriuscula among others.

o semi-shrub community, with Artemisia halodendron as most typical for the Korqin, (semi-) stabilizing moving sands. This is a species with a strong capability of regeneration, both through seed and vegetative propagation. The average plant height is 40-60 cm; canopy diameter is 60-100 cm, with a well-developed root system up to 2 m deep. This is a very important plant species in sand control.

o drought tolerant thorny shrub community: the representative species is Caragana microphylla, often mixed with Artemisia halodendron and Hedysarum fruticosum, forming a community type, which stabilizes sand. Due to its well-developed and deep root system, it has a strong sand-binding effect. It is also a very good source of fodder for goats. Some of this species grows associated with Ulmus pumila to form open woodland shrub grassland.

o medium height shrub community: the main species are Prunus sibirica, Rosa dahurica, Ribes diacaxtha and Atraphaxis manshurica, which have a sand-binding function, and relatively high ecological, environmental and economic values.

o open woodland community: in Korqin, three main types of sandy land open woodland communities are distinguished. The most widely distributed type is the Ulmus pumila open woodland. The other types are: the Hemiptelea davidii open woodland and the Ulmus macrocarpa open woodland, in the eastern part. Salix matsudana open woodland originated through seeds carried by the Jiaolai River (among others) flood in the Korqin, 50 years ago. Since then these natural arid willow open woodland gradually established itself, concentrated in Naiman County and Kulun County and covered an area of approximately 30 000 ha. They became a valuable resource for the local farmers, providing fodder, fuel and building materials, harvested through regular pruning leaving the trees standing. At present these willow woodlands have almost disappeared, because of overuse and conversion to agriculture, with only under 3 000 ha left. Local habitants call the odd shaped trees "bare-looking willows".

Other open woodlands that existed in the Korqin but are now reduced to small areas are the following.

• Mixed open woodland of Pinus tabulaeformis and Quercus mongolica: only relicts remain around Chifeng's Pine Mountain Forest Farm, with an area of 1300 ha (55% down in the year 2000, compared to the area in the mid-1970's).

• Mixed open woodland of Quercus mongolica and Acer mono is mainly distributed in Wudan Tala Forest Farm in Korqin Left Wing Rear Banner, covering about 2700 ha.

• Mixed open woodland of Ulmus macrocarpa and Quercus mongolica is distributed around the Great Green Valley in Korqin Left Wing Rear Banner, with an area of 1300 ha.

• Mixed open woodland of Fraxinus mandshurica and Salix korensis is distributed in the Great Green Valley, with an area of only 140 ha left.

• Mixed open woodlands with Prunus mandshurica, Ulmus pumila and Celtis bungeana are distributed in the Aulun Forest Farm in Huren Banner, covering about 200 ha.

The Open Woodland Community is the end stage of sandy land vegetation succession. Together with shrubs and grasses, open woodland shrub grassland is formed, being the vegetation type with the most diversified ecological functions and the highest resource values. The open woodland holds promise for the ecological rehabilitation of the Korqin Sandy Lands, allowing a complex management system, incorporating agriculture, woodland-based forestry and animal husbandry.

The main wood resources in Korqin sandy lands: man-made plantations

Tree species that can be used successfully in afforestation and sand-fixation are limited, and need to present all of the following characteristics: drought-tolerant, cold-resistant and fast-growing. Poplar is the major species used in afforestation, mainly due to the high ground-watertable in relatively flat sandy regions.

After the foundation of PRC, afforestation has been promoted in the Korqin Sandy Lands and large-scale plantations with P. simonii, Pinus sylvestris var. Mongolica and other tree species for sand-fixation were started. During the 1960's and 70's, emphasis was on the establishment of plantations of P. sylvestris var. Mongolica, Picea mongolica, and poplar clones such as P. x xiaozhuannica cv Popularis and P. x euramericana cl. Robusta.,among others, while P. simonii was almost ignored.

IV. Socio-economic characteristics of the Region

The main administrative region in the Korqin is the Tongliao City Region, which comprises 8 Counties and 138 Townships. Furthermore there are 83 State Farms, including Forestry Farms, Agricultural Farms and Animal husbandry Farms.

Total population is 3.0835 million, of which 55% Chinese, 41% Mongolian, almost 3% Manchurean and less then 0.6% is of other etnities. The Mongolian population in the City Region represents a quarter of all Mongolian people in China, and one third of all Mongolians in Inner Mongolia. Population in many of the more remote villages is almost entirely Mongolian.

The Tongliao City Region has 816700 households, of which 73% is rural. Labour force is estimated at 813 000.

Animal husbandry and agriculture are the main economic activities, making up for respectively 11.5 and 26.5 of GDP.

From the fifties to the eighties population density increased from 30 to 48 inhabitants per km², and has reached now 51 inhabitants per km².

In the eighties, per capita income (PCI) was 377 RMB; the income originated in impoverished counties (with a PCI of between 200 and 400 RMB), made 42% of the total. At present, there are still 7 counties with a per capita income lower than 500 RMB. By the year 2000, average income had risen to 1780 yuan RMB.

In the country-side income is based for 70% on agriculture (corn, beans, rice on waterlogged lowlands) and 30% on animal husbandry (goats, sheep, cattle, pigs, geese, poultry).

Villages' infrastructure is not developed, roads depending on the season, are mostly dusty or muddy tracks,. However, efforts are made to improve the situation, and most of the villages have electricity. Also housing is improving considerably: sturdy brick houses are now common, while some years ago they were the exception.

Population of all kind of grazing animals ave increased manyfold over the years, while the grazing lands have been reduced or have degraded due to overgrazing. The Government has now decreed a grazing ban, starting in Spring 2002, where free-roaming animals wll be confiscated and owners fined. At this early moment of implementation no major change is visible in the field, but it is said that this ban will be implemented with gradually increasing severity. A ban on free-roaming goats allready existed in many counties, but was not strictly implemented.

Rural population is well aware of the on-going environmental degradation and a much greener landscape still lives in the memories of the middle-aged and older inhabitants. However, generally speaking, the Government is seen as the leading entity to change this situation, and households are willing to provide the labour when required to do so. One reason for this is that no spare income nor labour is available to finance tree-planting. Rural economy in the remote villages is basicly subsistence-oriented.

1 Based on the work of Frank Beernaert, International Consultant in Land-classification, and Zhang Yugue, National Consultant Land Classification, Project GCP/CPR/009/BEL.

2 For more information on Elm open woodlands in the Korqin: See: "Notes on elm in the Korqin Sandy Lands", by Zou Shouyi et al. Publication by the Project GCP/CPR/009/BEL, Tongliao, 2002.