Eucalyptus Plantations in Vietnam: Their History and Development Process - Tran Xuan Thiep

Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, Ministry of Forestry, Vietnam.

ABSTRACT

The history and development of Vietnam Eucalyptus plantations are reviewed. A re-markable expansion of planting followed recent regreening of denuded and degraded lands policies, coupled with pragmatic land allocation, economic and practical support policies. Species and provenance trials have indicated a wide and successful use of E. tereticornis and E. camaldulensis (Petford) and lately E. urophylla in the lowlands and E. microcorys and E. grandis in the highlands. E. exserta is relegated to drier, low nutrient soils of the north; E. tereticornis has shown to be better suited than E. camaldulensis to the waterlogged acid sulphate soils. The area of eucalypt plantation is larger than all other species combined, with some 3-400,000 ha plantations and the equivalent of 6-700,000 ha in scattered tree plantings. E. camaldulensis, Petford provenance is the preferred species. Site growth rates are established; pests and diseases are noted. Eucalypt multipurpose plantings provide wood for pulp, domestic construction and packaging, export and for fuel as a by-product. Social aspects are considered and the impact is positive in providing investment and employment opportunities and in returning land to productive levels. Caution is expressed in large scale planting and data is required for assessing possible environmental impact. The effectiveness of the planting progress is attributed to devolvement of full ownership of plantings, including utilisation and marketing; food aid to assist needy farmers; support by Forest Services and involvement of the private sector.

Key words: Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Vietnam, plantations, afforestation, agroforestry, social forestry.

INTRODUCTION

Eucalyptus plantation development history

The Vietnamese forestry sector has never in its history witnessed such an active participation of the people at large, as has occurred during these last 10 years in Eucalyptus plantations. Farmers, other sectors of the economy (including those dealing with education and national defense), people's leagues and organizations, not excluding poor peasants receiving food aid to plant trees, entrepreneurs working for profits, foreign firms and NGOs, etc. are all involved in Eucalyptus plantation objectives. The root causes of this are:

1. Vietnam has well established long term economic development strategies, in particular for the "denuded hill areas". It has followed a constant policy to "Regreening as quickly as possible open lands and denuded hills". The first attempts in tree planting in the northern Provinces in 1975 were found promising for further development of the strategy.

2. Economic reform is in force in Vietnam shifting centrally planned systems to mechanisms oriented to a market economy. The main feature in the forestry sector has been the application of a policy of "Land and forest allocation" to persons and entities effectively involved in forest land farming and plantations. Comprehensive measures centered on this have developed that supplement each other and strengthen the economic and social impacts of the policy. Beneficiaries are local farmers and involved investors.

3. The Government has encouraged foreign investors to become involved in a wide range of activities so to bring all the above strategies and policies into life. This has attracted foreign NGOs and entrepreneurs to tree planting and to activities in Vietnam.

Today eucalypt planting has reached a climax rate, however the State and many scientists, express caution and are of the opinion that Eucalyptus plantation programmes will not be effective unless there is suitable choice of species, sites and appropriate management of concentrated plantations, are adopted.

The next step will be to apply intensive management to all areas planted with Eucalyptus; to rule out pure plantations of species, to introduce more legumes - in particular acacias in eucalypt plantations, or to practice some kind of rotation of crops. Technical developments along these lines will help promote further rational Eucalyptus plantations in Vietnam on a sustainable basis.

As in other countries in South East Asia, Vietnam has developed its forestry activities over a long time, including Eucalyptus plantations.

EUCALYPT TRIALS AND PLANTATIONS IN VIETNAM

North Vietnam

As early as 1904, the French physician Dr. Brochet (Revue Economique de L' Indochine, 1904) discovered a eucalypt at Coc Leu (Lao Cai Province). It seems to have been a Eucalyptus globulus or E. pieratus (?) 15 m high and 13 cm thick. However, older generation foresters are of the opinion that Eucalyptus was introduced into Vietnam in the 30's, during which extensive trials commenced - in terms of species involved. One of the most important trials at the time was made at Cau Cam (Nghe An) by the then "Inspection des Eaux et Forets" (I.E.F.). The species involved was reportedly Eucalyptus resinifera. Later, Chinese specialists (1964) renamed the species as E. camaldulensis, which however was again renamed by Thai Van Trung (1970) as E. tereticornis. The trials covered over 5-7 ha, were well maintained and produced seed for further plantation till 1970-75.

During 1959-60, with a view to "Regreening open lands and denuded hills", seed of E. exserta, E. camaldulensis, E. robusta, E. citriodora, and E. globulus were imported from Autonomous Zone of Zhoang, Kwang Si, China. Plantations were established in many Provinces of the Northern Midlands, in particular in Vinh Phu, Ha Bac, Bac Thai, Quang Ninh, on hillsides developed from old alluvia, micaschist and quartzite. Among the species used, E. exserta showed good performance, in particular on poor sites on which many trees species had failed to grow. From 1960-70 plantations, mainly of E. exserta, were developed to some extent and have reached 40,000 ha. On poor sites, on which the soil differentiation process has caused laterites to prevail at 50-60 cm, the production was estimated at 60-80 m³/ha with a felling cycle of 8-12 years. After the first felling, coppice from the 2nd and 3rd generations was mainly used for fuelwood production.

Seed source: It is known from "Eucalyptus in China" (Science Publishing House, Beijing, 1967) that in 1909 most of the seed in China were imported from Italy, the seed when used in plantations north of Yangtse did not yield good results; but when used in plantations south of Yangtse - excluding Kwangsi - (1914) they brought satisfactory results. E. camaldulensis, though not successful on hillsides, thrived and was eagerly accepted in the Delta and the Midland for scattered tree planting along road sides. The species E. exserta and E. camaldulensis were found useful both in full plantations and in scattered tree plantings in many northern Provinces. Some plantations and groups of scattered trees at Vinh Phu and Bac Thai were managed to produce seed for plantation development during these late years.

South Vietnam

From 1950 to 1964 over 54 species and provenances of Eucalyptus have were tested at 4 research stations: Mang Linh (1,500 m); Lang Hanh (900 m) Lam Dong province; Eakmat (400 m) Dac Lac Province and Tan Tao (in the supratidal zone, near the seashore, 5-10 m) in the suburbs of Ho Chi Minh City (Silviculture Scientific Paper - Saigon Agriculture Forestry Animal Husbandry Service, 1965).

Because of the then prevailing concept that "Eucalyptus were only suitable at high elevations" as expressed by P. Maurand (1968), most of the species used for trials were from sub-tropical and temperate climates. The main sources of seed were France and Holland, with some from India, Australia and Rhodesia. Detail on trials and species tested follow.

< Lang Hanh Station >

Species and provenances from Vilmorin-France: 1950: E. maidenii, E. punctata, E. robusta, E. cineria, E. saligna, E. botryoides, E. resinifera, E. paniculata, E. citriodora, E. microcorys, E. globulus. 1952: E. triantha. 1953: E. maidenii, E. punctata, E. robusta, E. rostrata, E. cineria, E. saligna, E. camaldulensis. 1958: E. longifolia. 1960: E. maidenii. 1962: E. calophylla.

Other species and provenances from Holland: 1963: E. globulus, E. alba, E. cinerea, E. maidenii, E. leucoxylon, E. cornuta, E. melanophloia, E. coriacea, E. sideraxylon, E. maculata, E. botryoides, E. polyamthemas, E. gunnii, E. resinifera.

Other species and provenances: 1958: E. polyamthemas, E. camaldulensis, E. sideroxylon, E. creba; from India. 1963: E. longifolia (from the Station itself) E. rostrata (from India). 1964: E. cladocalyx, E. tereticornis, E. rudis, E. creba, E. camaldulensis; from Rhodesia. 1965: E. muelleriana, E. patens (from Australia), E. microthera (from California, USA), E. muelleriana, E. maidenii, E. patens (from Australia), E. microthera (from California, USA). The following species have been found to be promising: at Lang Hanh station: E. tereticornis, E. citriodora, E. rostrata, E. microcorys, E. punctata.

< Mang Linh Station >

Species and provenances from Vilmorin, France: 1954: E. saligna, E. maidenii, E. robusta, E. rostrata. 1958: E. saligna. 1960: E. microcorys, E. saligna, E. grandis, E. robusta, E. rostrata. 1963: E. viminalis, E. obliqua. 1964: E. tereticornis, E. citriodora, E. punctata. 1965: E. maidenii. Promising species are: E. citriodora, E. maidenii, E. robusta, E. rostrata, E. tereticornis, E. grandis, E. longifolia.

< Eakmat Station >

Parallel trials were made at Eakmat Station, on the High Plateau with the following Eucalyptus species: 1963: E. tereticornis, E. globulus, E. citriodora, E. saligna, E. viminalis, E. microcorys. 1964: E. longifolia, E. rostrata. 1965: E. rostrata, E. camaldulensis. The most promising species are: E. tereticornis, E. citriodora, E. saligna.

< Tan Tao Station >

The station was established in the supratidal zone, near the seashore, in the district of Binh Chanh (Ho Chi Minh City); acid sulphate soils predominate. Trials were made in 1959 with E. rostrata of Lang Hanh (Lam Dong Province). Provenance trials were made of the same species in 1962 with seed from India. From 1970, trials were made with E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis of Australian provenances.

Trials were made on raised beds, 60-80 cm high, 4-5 m wide. E. camaldulensis performed very well from the first year, with estimated yields of 4-12 m³/ha/yr. When the plantation was 3 years old, it was estimated that the yield could reach 10-15 m³/ha/yr with a felling cycle of 8-10 years. These results encouraged the Japanese Company, Koei to carry out feasibility studies to plant 200,000 ha of eucalypts in that area for pulp wood production.

TRIALS AND PLANTATIONS OF EUCALYPTS MADE AFTER 1975

After the reunification of the country, activities in eucalypt introduction and trials and intensive plantation management have further developed in Vietnam. This was due to a more active promotion of the policy to "Regreening open lands and denuded hills" by the Government, and partly to the present economic setting requiring further development of tree planting for fuelwood and industrial timber supply. There has also been continued assistance from SIDA (Sweden) and FAO/WFP projects No. 3352 (1989-93) and No. 4304 (1992-96) providing necessary funds, seed and food aid for tree planting in northern and central Vietnam. Some seed for trials were also supplied by the FAO project VIE/86/026 facilitating trials in many research stations from North to South.

Species and provenance trials

Contrary to earlier prevailing concepts, species and provenances were now selected on their possible performance in the tropical lowlands of Vietnam. Most of the provenances were from Australia.

The species and provenances under trial made or supervised by the Forest Science Institute of Vietnam (FSI) numbered nearly 70. As said earlier, most of them were from Australia, coming from: 1) Katherine (NT)^[6]; 2) Petford (Qld)^[7]; 3) Gibb river (WA)^[8]; 4) Mt. Garnet (Qld); 5) Bullock Creek (Qld); 6) Irvinebank (Qld); 7) Fitzroy River (WA); 8) White river (WA); 9) Ord river (WA); 10) 105 km N Ord River Crossing (WA); 11) Halls Creek (WA); 12) Kennedy River (Qld); 13) Cooktown (Qld); 14) Atherton (Qld); 15) Herberton (Qld) and 16) Hughenden (Qld). Also some other species and provenances were introduced.

From 1976 trials were made in 15 (of 16) Stations either directly managed by the Forest Science Institute of Vietnam (FSI) or directed by the Provincial authorities with supervision of FSI. The results were consolidated in 1989-90. Valuable and important findings can be found in the "Report on provenance trials of Eucalyptus species in Vietnam" (Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1990). Below are some results obtained from Dai Lai Station (north Vietnam) and Ma Da station (south Vietnam) in which trials were made on a scale more suitable for evaluation.

< Dai Lai Station >

Geographic location and physical conditions: Latitude: 21^o20'N; Longitude: 105^o40'E; Elevation: 50 m; Average annual temperature: 23^o5C; Annual rainfall: 1922 mm, 4 months (from November to April) of less than 50 mm from drizzle; Soils from old alluvia.

In 1976, trials were made (49 plants, and 3 replicates each) with E. camaldulensis (3 provenances), E. tereticornis (2 provenances) and E. exserta (local provenances only). Results were recorded at 28 months: E. camaldulensis (provenance Petford Australia) performed best with 4.0 m high and 3.63 cm diameter at stump height. E. exserta showed the lowest performance with only 2 m height and 2.35 cm diameter at stump height. Other species and provenances from Australia scored similar results (with 2.7 m height and 2.3-2.8 cm diameter at stump height).

In 1987, trials were made with 24 provenances of 9 species. The main species were: E. camaldulensis (5 provenances), E. tereticornis (4 provenances), E. urophylla (3 provenances), E. pellita (3 provenances) and E. grandis (2 provenances). Results obtained were: for height growth, provenances of E. camaldulensis were the best; for diameter growth, provenances of E. tereticornis ranked first; E. exserta from local provenance showed high plasticity under the prevailing microclimatic conditions and on hillsides developed from old alluvia of Dai Lai (Appendix 1).

< Ma Da Station >

Geographic location and physical conditions: Latitude: 11^o16'N; Longitude: 107^o05'E; elevation: 60-70 m; average annual temperature: 26.2C; rainy and dry seasons distinguishable, with rainfall concentrated in the rainy season of 6 months; nutrient content - poor; soils shallow, brown and gray ferralitic.

Trials were made in 1984 with 5 species and 37 provenances: E. camaldulensis (23 provenances); E. exserta (2 provenances); E. alba and E. brassiana (1 provenance for each species). Soil preparation was made with tractors, followed by hand hole digging. Initial spacing was 3 x 1.5 m. Plots had 36 plants and 5 replicates for each provenance. Results obtained concurred with those obtained from Dai Lai Station. Provenances of E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis had the best height growth. Other species and provenances such as E. exserta, E. camaldulensis (Vietnam provenance) and E. alba (Mt. Molloy provenance) showed poorest growth. In diameter and volume growth, E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis of CSIRO seedlots: 13418, 13443, 13444, 13801, 12968 were rated as the most promising (Appendix 2).

General observations on trials

The trials of species and provenances, mainly of E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis seemed convincing. These two species under the present setting have been tested and planted in many areas with good success. However, other species and provenances are found suitable either for tropical lowlands such as E. urophylla, or for the highlands such as E. citriodora, E. globulus, E. saligna, E. grandis. Under the current level of information results of tests and trials made earlier, may require "reassessment" so to rule out the monoculture of E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis now in vogue nation wide.

The trials of some local provenances have strengthened our confidence in building up national seed stands of Eucalyptus to provide planting materials for future nation wide plantation programmes in Vietnam. However, the promising provenances assessed, are only early results.

PLANTATIONS OF EUCALYPTUS: GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Over the last 17 years, and especially since 1985, plantations of eucalypts have been developing nation wide from north to south under two methods of establishment; either in concentrated industrial plantations or scattered tree planting practice. The latter used by State owned enterprises, people's leagues and organizations and private households, all in either extensive or intensive methods of management.

· Preferred species: Sharp species preferences are noted; everywhere people ask for E. camaldulensis, Petford provenance. Only some very small areas are planted with E. urophylla in Vinh Phu or with E. tereticornis in Quang Nam Da Nang and in the zone affected by acid sulphate soils of the West South Vietnam.

After 30 years of Eucalyptus trials and plantations, it has been found that E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis are the most suitable for a wide range of sites from north to south, conditional on there being enough water available, and if these are not severely degraded. There is still much confusion between the two species - in particularly in their identification - that needs further classification so as to have more precise knowledge on their provenances.

· On drier and poorer sites in the north: E. exserta seems to be suitable. With trials now being made, it is hoped that some of these sites could be planted with E. urophylla.

· On zones affected by acid sulphate soils: characterized by a very low pH and periodic waterlogging the year round (more or less under water 4 months a year); the most promising species are also E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis, with the latter being more tolerant on these sites than the former.

· On tropical highlands: (above 900-1,000 m elevation), such as Lang Hanh and Mang Linh that were the sites of study some 30-40 years ago, E. microcorys and E. grandis were found to be the best, particularly for big size timber production.

· Other Vietnamese provenances: of E. exserta (from Vinh Phu), and of E. camaldulensis (from Bac Thai, Binh Dinh), which may have lower performances than other provenances from Australia (for E. camaldulensis) and from the south of Vietnam (in the case of E. exserta) are found acceptable by many tree planters. In fact, for many years they have been providing seed for the whole of Vietnam; there are nearly 1,000 ha being managed as seed stands.

PRESENT STATUS OF EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS IN VIETNAM

Area planted

Eucalypt plantations have become something as a fact of life since 1980. The area planted with eucalypt has become larger than any area planted with other tree species, such as Manglietia glauca, Pinus spp., Styrax tonkinensis, Tectona grandis, etc., taken individually, or combined. However, the eucalypt plantations so far established are only dots of greenery on the immense denuded hill area found in the midlands and along the coast of this country. On the other hand, a most striking fact is that the area of eucalypts planted as scattered trees when added up together, is the largest.

It is too early to say but it is a fact that these two features may have a "braking" effect on the process of ecological environment deterioration, on pest and disease outbreaks and wild fires. These are problems which are very apparent with concentrated plantations of other tree species, such as Styrax tonkinensis, Manglietia glauca, and Pinus merkusii.

Eucalyptus plantations have been playing an important role in national industries, especially in wood supply, e.g. raw material supply to paper industries 37,400 ha for the period 1986-90; fuelwood supply: 145 million steres for the same period and in timber export eucalypt timber is the main commodity. In the more important plantation programmes, much emphasis was placed on planting of eucalypts; for example in project No. 3352 ending 1992, 33,000 ha of eucalypt were planted of 70,000 ha established.

For the period 1986-90, 629,000 ha of plantations of all species were established; (50% by State enterprises; and 50% by other entities) and 2,050,165,000 scattered trees (equivalent to 1,020,000 ha, counted on the basis of 2,000 trees for 1 ha) planted. There are no statistics showing the area planted with species but it is estimated that over 50-60% of the full plantation area was planted with eucalypt (or 3-400,000 ha), and 70-80% of the scattered tree area planted was of eucalypt (or 7-800,000 ha).

Data on Eucalyptus plantation area established by the State owned enterprises during the period 1986-90 follow in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Eucalyptus plantation area 1986-90

Source: 30 years (1961-90) of forestry development - Ministry of Forestry (MoF) 1991

The above shows the percentage of eucalypt planted in the State owned enterprises is lowest, as they are located in the mountain area in which eucalypt planting is not possible. But even in the State owned enterprises in which eucalypt plantation is feasible, this has not been done due to restrictions set out in the planning documents. However, there is clear tendency toward more eucalypt plantings in the State owned enterprises, nowadays.

Diagram 1. Possible extension zones for eucalypt plantations

Main species used

Some 30-40 eucalypt species have been introduced into Vietnam, but in almost all areas only one species, E. camaldulensis, Petford provenance (Australia) has been used for practical plantations. Recently, E. tereticornis has also been used for some small plantations in north Vietnam, and more extensively so in central and southern Vietnam. E. urophylla has shown good performance on some degraded hillsides of north Vietnam, but the species is rarely used. Finally, E. exserta which was accepted by people of the northern midlands many years ago, is now used only for fuelwood production. It can be said that the trials comprised a wide range of species and provenances, but in practice there is the now a shift to the monoculture of E. camaldulensis Petford provenance. P. Stahl (1991), a SIDA consultant, noted: "The main weakness of the eucalypt plantation programme in Vietnam is that only E. camaldulensis has been used and the seed of it have also come from only one provenance, that of Petford. This is based on recent trials that have not yet yield definitive answers to the problem and that were sometimes made not very carefully. I believe that this brings in only good success at the short term." K.M. Gray (1991), a FAO energy consultant, also said in his report on biomass energy for the "Forestry Sector Review" project: "Plantation programme in Vietnam relies only on a few tree species and provenances, in particular on Eucalyptus."

PERFORMANCE OF EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS

North Vietnam

E. exserta: On soils developed from old alluvia of north Vietnam. Study site: Phong Chau, Vinh Phu; soils, developed ferrallitic soil, shallow (50 cm deep) covered with dry grasses Eriachne pallescens and Chrysopogon aciculatus. Felling cycled adopted 8-10 years, plantation yield = 6-8 m³/ha/yr (over bark). The growth data is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. E. exserta growth data

E. camaldulensis: On various sites of different zones where the soils are enough deep (more or less 1 m deep) and water is available; due to cover vegetation protection and shallow (available) ground water table, the growth of the plantations does not differ greatly. The growth data is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Growth data, E. camaldulensis, from some study sites

(*) Site similar to that used for E. exserta planting, taken as control

Source: Ngo Que, Hoang Xuan Ty, Ngo Duc Minh - 1989

Cao Van Tho and Clara Hellstrom (1989) in referring to plantations established in the "Paper raw material area" (Vinh Phu), reported growth of E. camaldulensis, Petford, and of E. urophylla at their first development stage as follows:

1. E. camaldulensis, Petford: at 33 months of age, planted with an initial spacing of 1,100 trees per hectare in 1986 (measurements made in 1989 over 943 residual trees per ha).

2. The variation in production values is quite large (39.6 m³ to 6.8 m³/ha) showing high differences during the development process of various stands.

The growth data is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Average growth data (on 19 stands) E. camaldulensis Petford, 33 months

E. urophylla: The growth data is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Average growth data (on two stands) E. urophylla at 33 months

Reference to Diagram 2 provides a plausible explanation of the growth of E. camaldulensis in north Vietnam, when conditions as soil depth and the depth of ground water table vary.

Diagram 2. Growth of E. camaldulensis in delta and hillside

Central Vietnam

E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis: The growth data is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Growth of E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis in Quang Nam Da Nang

Source: Ngo Que, Hoang Xuan Ty, Ngo Duc Minh - FSI 1991

Both species have performed very well; on deep soils they yield good results irrespective of the parent substratum. For a felling cycle of 8-10 years, the estimated yield could be 15 m³/ha/yr. On shallower soils (less than 50 cm deep), the yield may be 50% lower.

South Vietnam

Plantations at Trang Bom, Dong Nai Province: E. tereticornis and E. camaldulensis (provenances from Australia) in 1984. The growth data is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Stand growth 5 years age (1984-89)

Source: Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1990

The plantations of Eucalyptus established at Trang Bom are the most successful in Vietnam due to favourable site conditions, loamy soil over flat terrain. This is reason why the local provenance of E. camaldulensis (from Bac Thai Vietnam), whose performance elsewhere is usually much lower as compared to some other provenances from Australia, can grow well at the locality. The same provenances when established at Ma Da on shallow brown gray soils may bring in a yield 50% lesser than obtained at Trang Bom. With a felling cycle of 8-12 years, the potential yield at Trang Bom may reach 13-15 m³/ha/yr.

Plantations on acid sulphate soils of Tan Tao: Physical conditions: strongly acid soil reaction (pH 3.2-3.5), the site experiences 4 months of waterlogging a year. Soil preparation: raised beds 5 m wide x 0.6 m high x 20 m long. First trials with some provenances of Eucalyptus from Australia.

Figure 8. Growth on acid sulphate soils of Tan Tao at 5 years (1984-89)

Source: Pham Ngoc Co, Hoang Chuong, 1992

With the planting method now in use (raised beds to avoid waterlogging), both species under trials perform quite well. It is estimated that with a felling cycle of 8-10 years, the average yield may reach 15 m³/ha/yr.

Conclusions: Two major results can be noted:

• E. tereticornis seems to be more tolerant than E. camaldulensis to acid sulphate soil under the trial conditions.

• The eucalypt tap root system, when encountering the "sulphate generating layer" (at a depth of 30-60 cm) ceases to develop, the lateral roots under these conditions expand to maintain tree growth (Diagram 3). This makes people ask: "How high should the beds be to secure normal tree growth up to the time of final felling?" The answer to that question is complex, much depends on the cost of soil preparation to raise the beds to the optimal height.

Diagram 3. Development of eucalypt root systems in acid sulphate soils

PESTS, DISEASES AND WILD FIRE

Few people, other than scientists and plantation managers, are concerned with damage caused by pests, diseases, and wild fires that affect the growth of eucalypt stands.

Pests and diseases

Based on FIPI (1992) findings in base line surveys and the survey on eucalypt pests and diseases carried on in Western SVN (VIE/87/031), the following is noted:

Diagram 4. Pests and diseases affecting eucalypt plantations in the Long Euyen area (An Giang and Kien Giang Provinces)

1. Termite damage: is noted everywhere in eucalypt plantations in Vietnam. Apart from ravaging dry wood of Eucalyptus they do not cause much damage to plantations. Termites of the subfamily Macrotermitidae cause damage in both plantation and nurseries, as noticed in Thailand, Indonesia, and India.

2. Leaf eaters: Species of economic damage importance are: the rust-grey hopper, Adoritus comporessus; the beetle, Anomala cupriper; some flat headed borers of the family of Buprestidea, some leaf-cutter bees of the family Megachilidae.

3. Eucalypt stem borers: Celosterna has been found in eucalypt plantations in many areas.

4. Stump decay: caused by fungi of the order of Agaricales and the family of Polyporaceae.

5. Damping off disease: affects seedlings raised in nurseries and is caused by fungi of: Phytophthora, Cylindrocladium, Alternaria species. The pathogens can cause big losses in tree nurseries when nursery soil treatment is neglected.

To date, pests and diseases have not caused severe losses in eucalypt plantations in Vietnam. However, termites may cause serious damage to eucalypt plantations, as has happened some time ago in north Vietnam.

Wild Fires

The same could not be said for wild fires, especially so for plantations established in south Vietnam (SRV), where the dry season prevails 6 months of the year. In particular, the threat from wild fires is very serious in Western SRV. Forest plantation managers of that area are of the opinion that under the present setting about 30% of the plantation area therein can be destroyed by fire. This is reason forest project MKG/R 90034, after having formulated a pilot plantation programme in Long Xuyen area (1992), seeks a consultancy on fire control.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS

The role of eucalypt plantations in fuelwood supply

In the last 5-7 years, the supply of fuel wood for domestic uses in Vietnam has been improved to some extent due to eucalypt plantations producing around 1.8 million tons of fuelwood per annum to meet an annual consumption of 20.9 million tons (Gray, 1991).

A further study of the fuelwood market may show a higher share of eucalypt wood in that supply. The real situation in Vietnam is that only 28% of the people living in urban areas are willing to buy fuelwood for their own use. The rest of the population still believes that fuel-wood is a "free" commodity one can get it whenever labour is spent to collect it, thus making its supply difficult to assess, and its price very low. This is also due to the fact that since 1986, over 80-90% of the plantations have been established by farmer households, and that the area involved is scattered, making fuelwood readily accessible, in both the mountain and delta area.

Due to low fuelwood price, no eucalypt plantations were established in Vietnam for the sole purpose of fuelwood supply. The State and other entities, including private entrepreneurs are not willing to invest in plantations for that purpose, due to possible financial losses. The right policy to address fuelwood problems in Vietnam is to establish "multipurpose" forest plantations. At present, most eucalypt plantations in this country are first scheduled to provide timber for pulp, construction framework, packaging, domestic use and even exports. Under these conditions, fuelwood comes from thinning, top and branch wood after logging, or coppice. The policy encourages thousands of farmers' households to invest resources in plantations, and keeps the fuelwood price at a level acceptable to all people.

Emphasis should also be laid here upon another important problem in fuelwood supply. It is customary in Vietnam that fuelwood collection is often carried out by women who have many other things to do in their family life. With eucalypt plantations being established in the village, everyone in the family can now collect fuel, relieving the old time drudgery of women.

Supply of pulpwood - an important and long term outlet for eucalypt plantations

In 1990 the industrial plantation area was 77,300 ha. Most of this was in the "Paper raw material area". In this area, Vinh Phu Paper Mill (capacity 50,000 tons of paper per year) as initially planned in 1972 did not have any eucalypt plantations for its raw material supply. However, the percentage of eucalypt wood now used for paper making has risen to 23%, and will be rise to 30% by 1995.

Other examples show the same tendency. As early as in 1988, the Printing Company Liksin presented a project to develop in central and southern Vietnam a 10 year (1989-98) plantation programme to develop 850,000 ha of eucalypt for raw material supply to paper industries operating in Quang Nam, Da Nang and further South. In 1992, VINAPRAM, a branch company of Liksin established 1,300 ha of eucalypt in Song Be, and in 1993, some 15,000 ha of same are to be planted. The Province of Dong Nai has established its paper raw material enterprise of Ma Da (1989). Kien Giang and Taiwan Joint Venture carried out pilot plantations of eucalypt (1989) to obtain better data for the preparation of plans to establish 60,000 ha of eucalypt plantation in this Province. Other companies from Japan, France, Philippines, etc. are making market surveys to carry eucalypt plantation activities in Quang Ninh, Ha Tay, Dac Lac, etc. A Forestry Plantation Document (1990-2000) shows that by 2000, the raw material supply to paper industries from eucalypt plantations could be 1.2 million tons of timber taken from 23,000 ha of plantations established every year, totaling 230,000 ha of plantation for the same period.

Export of eucalypt timber - a nationwide market for Eucalyptus

Most of the eucalypt plantations, have been established in the midlands and on hillsides along the coast. The distance from these plantations to the ports averages 50-60 km, the longest being less than 150 km. The area is populated, a labour force is readily available, and the infrastructure (roads and railways) are in place, facilitating the transportation of eucalypt commodities to ports. Besides incentives now in force, these are reasons why foreign and national enterprises are promoting business in eucalypt planting.

Further, during late years eucalypt plantation activities have been developing somewhat due to possible foreign outlets for eucalypt products. Many Provinces, such as Ha Bac, Quang Ninh, Dong Nai, etc., have been engaged in the process, and are planning to develop their network of eucalypt plantations for that purpose. Many public organizations, enterprise and even households have become better off as they have engaged in eucalypt timber export.

With restrictions now in force restricting export of round wood and sawn timber, eucalypt products will be exported mainly in the form of chips and even pulp; the planned target by the year 2000 is 2.5 million tons of eucalypt chips.

SOCIAL IMPACT OF EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS

The area of open land and denuded hills requiring urgent regreening to control soil erosion and improve environmental conditions amounts to nearly 2 million ha (not including area needed for crop protection). The central strategy was pointed out as early as 1960, but effective results have been recorded only since 1980. These followed the adoption of effective and comprehensive measures by the Government, and the successful planting of eucalypts. Plantations have brought not only conditions for better environmental conservation on degraded hills and open lands, but also many other tangible social benefits.

When summing up the achievements of the forestry sector in 1991, it was announced that various plantation programmes have provided employment to nearly half a million house-holds of 2.5 million persons of which 1 million were adults. These figures show that the forestry sector has reached the half way target planned for unemployment relief by the year 2000. The target is: the development of forest plantation activities for regreening 5 million ha of denuded hills, and providing employment to 1 million households, some 6-7 million persons, of whom 2 million are adults.

The programmes have also contributed to various schemes of population redistribution (and relocation) to unproductive hillsides areas. These have been turned into productive lands after reafforestation, paving the way for the development of "new economic zones" in Vietnam. Conditions have been created for the development of social forestry and for thousands of farmers' households to strengthen their family economy through tree planting and agroforestry practice. Opportunities for many entrepreneurs and foreign firms to develop plantation business have been offered. Many other critical social problems have been addressed, as those related to fuelwood shortage, to raw material supply to industries etc.

EUCALYPTUS PLANTING - PROPONENTS AND OPPONENTS

Nationwide support from the Government to farmers

To date in Vietnam no forest tree species has caused such controversy as eucalypts. Even at the onset, when eucalypt plantation began to gain some impetus in north Vietnam, there was no consensus of opinion in the Government that urged need for caution, or in the people, that eagerly accepted the tree, as it brought in effective results. The same people's attitudes still prevail under the present situation. While the Government is concerned with cautious development of eucalypt plantation, the people pay attention only to short term benefits. Below are some relevant opinions supporting the practice.

"Eucalypt as timber species have been introduced into Vietnam for decades. Local authorities willing to establish plantations should use species and provenances most suitable to the edaphic and climatic conditions of the sites, and practice the right methods of land farming to obtain effective economic results." (Excerpt from "Instructions by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers on Eucalyptus Plantation" August 1991). "Among the tree species used in reafforestation programmes, eucalypts are the species most eagerly accepted by farmers." (Phan Xuan Dot, former Minister of Forestry speaking in a Seminar on Eucalyptus Plantation and its Effects on the Environment, June 1991, Hanoi). "In 1980, the area under eucalypt plantation accounted for only 5% of the area reafforested, but in 1990 the area under eucalypt reached 50% of the total area planted with all species (eucalypts, pines, acacias, mangroves, cajeputs, Manglietia glauca, Styrax tonkinensis etc.) This shows eucalypts are accepted readily by farmers." (Prof. Hoang Hoe, Sc. and Tech. Dep. Director, MoF, in Forestry Review, No. 7-1991).

Farmers, clearly speak out their opinions. "I find it easy to grow eucalypt and, more recently, acacias. They bring good profit, and I readily invest in their cultivation. My personal assets now reach 215 million dongs. Housing and transportation facilities account for only 30 million dongs, the rest comes from some 50,000 eucalypt (dongs 100 million), 20,000 acacias (dongs 30 m) and many other products from agroforestry systems established. In 1990 other families in the locality and myself sold 200 tons of eucalypt timber for export. I think that eucalypt and acacias are good for soil conservation as well." (Nguyen Van Cuong, Bac Son Commune, Soc Son District, Hanoi City, 1991). "When investing money in business here, people are thinking of growing rice, but I think best to plant eucalypt which brings good returns. Without raised beds, the cost was something like 700,000-800,000 dongs per ha of plantation; production from this may be lower than with raised beds. After 6-7 years, I can get 60-70 m³ of timber and 15-20 steres of fuelwood per ha. The current prices of forest products may allow me to get back 2-2.5 times the money I have advanced. I have 180 ha. In 1994, I'll receive some first income and will buy some tractors to build up raised beds." (Nguyen Van Thang, An Thanh Farm, Luong Phi Commune, Tri Ton District, An Giang Province, 1992).

Adverse public opinion and counter charges

As early as 1966-1970 farmers in some localities of Vinh Phu found water levels in their wells near eucalypt plantations went down, deeper and deeper. Some marshy areas have also become much drier after eucalypt plantations were established; and under plantations there were no grass for cattle grazing. Public opinion against widespread eucalypt plantation was voiced and led to disastrous measures.

In 1977, the former Binh Tri Thien Province (now Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Thua Thien Hue Provinces) acted, and by order of the Provincial authority, over 30 million eucalypt seedlings were killed in nurseries. During 1988-1989 protest was voiced in south Vietnam, under the pretext that eucalypt planting might destroy the environmental equilibrium there. Following this, MoF had to issue specific instructions for eucalypt cultivation and FSI had to point out relevant explanations on the matter. Today, local authorities in the Provinces of Tuyen Quang, Ba Ria - Vung Tau etc. and in other localities still hesitate to use eucalypts for their plantation programmes. Prof. Vo Qui, an Environment Activist, clearly pointed out "It is an urgent matter now to carry further research for gradually replacing the 'current basket of eucalypt' by another mix of tree species more suitable to the localities in which plantation operations are badly needed." (Seminar on "Eucalyptus plantation and its effect on the environment", June, 1991, Hanoi).

IMPACT OF EUCALYPTUS PLANTATION ON ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS - EARLY OBSERVATIONS

Are eucalypts depleting the soils?

E. tereticornis and E. exserta have higher requirements in P₂O₅ than other tree species. This may have an impact on the contents of P₂O₅ in soils. But, generally speaking, there is still a slow evolution of chemical properties of soils and their nutrient contents toward better soil conditions. Eucalypt plantations can improve the physical properties of soils, in particularly in their surface layers, but the process is also very slow (Eng. Nguyen Ngoc Binh, Forest Soil Science Worker, 1979).

Is the grass cover under established eucalypt plantations dying off?

To study this phenomenon, Nguyen Ngoc Binh made some study in E. exserta plantations on the development of eucalypt root systems, in particular in the soil surface layers. It has been found that there has been some competition between the lateral eucalypt root system and that of grasses growing under established eucalypts ("Case Study on Planting Eucalyptus in Vietnam" - Technical Bulletin issued by the Sc. and Tch. Dep. of MoF, August 1979). Three cases can be pointed out:

• Under well stocked eucalypt stands, there is sparse or no grass cover.

• Under poorer stands of eucalypt, there is also a poor grass cover.

• Under very poor stands of eucalypt the grass cover grows quite well.

Are eucalypt plantations depleting soil water resources, killing the grasses and "robbing" the soil?

The 10-12 years of continued observation in E. exserta plantation established on denuded hills shows that the chemical properties of soils have not changed significantly under eucalypt. The soil surface layers, however, has somewhat improved in porosity. Soil moisture content under eucalypt plantation at 8 years of age is lower than the same under plantation of 3 years old, and much more so compared to the same on denuded hills without plantations. This may be due to everyday removal by people of leaf and litterfall from the plantation floor for fuel. Whether the grass cover under it may be killed or not when the plantation canopy closes, and why and how? - the clear answer still remains to be found out (Hoang Xuan Ty, in: "Some issues on eucalypt species in Vietnam", Technical Bulletin issued by the Sc. and Tch. Dep. of MoF, February 1984).

Expatriate consultants and experts working at the Research Centre of Phu Ninh - Vinh Phu have also expressed their observations: "Around Bai Bang where I have been - some time in and some time off - since 1984, I have seen more birds as soon as eucalypt have been planted on sites, which had been bare of any vegetation and bird life before." (P. Stahl, 1991; Forest Consultant in Forestry Review No. 7, 1991).

FIPI, on the other hand, recommends the followings: "The appropriate size of an area for industrial plantation with eucalypt should be more or less of 20,000 ha, in which there should be plantations of eucalypts and of other broad-leaved species mixed on an area basis and managed following suitable rotations of crops. Under these conditions, disastrous impacts on the environment could be removed." ("Ecological zoning for plantation in Vietnam", FIPI, 1989).

Concluding observation

As a conclusion to this aspect, it is advisable to mention a statement by Hoang Xuan Ty (1991) that: "Data are still lacking to assess the effects of Eucalyptus plantations on the environment" (Forestry Review No. 8, 1991).

MAIN POLICIES OF THE SRV GOVERNMENT ON FOREST PLANTATION, IN PARTICULAR ON EUCALYPTUS PLANTATION

Land and Forest Allocation Policy (LFAP): The most important incentive for forest plantation promotion

The most important policy for forest plantation development on open lands and denuded hills is the one related to forest and land allocation in force since 1980. The policy was further strengthened by an instruction from the SRV Government (1980), which urged the need for acceleration of land and forest allocation, for establishment of agroforestry systems. Further, instruction from the Central Agriculture Committee (1984) specifies terms and conditions for the implementation of the policy. Details of these instruction read:

• "Allocation of land and forest to be completed by the end of 1985.

• Regreening of open land, denuded hills, sand beaches, saline and acid sulphate soils areas, etc. to be completed by 1990. (Note: These orders show the determination of the State, which since 1986 has enacted comprehensive and effective measures, to push accelerate implementation of LFAP).

• Household masters are allocated open land for reafforestation and can receive food and/or financial aid within the limits of national resources, to develop forest plantations.

• They are allowed to organize joint venture with other organizations and individuals, within and without the country, to develop plantation ventures.

• They are entitled to take the initiative in production, products sale, and business as provided by law.

• The State also encourages investment by foreign firms and entrepreneurs, and adopts an open door policy to attract foreign investors.

Furthermore, in 1984, orders from relevant Ministries and Central Agencies stipulated that: "It is allowed to allocate each household up to 5-10 ha of land following the availability of it in the localities in question" (Instruction by MoF, February 1984). Further, "Land not under use shall be allocated to organizations and individuals by competent authorities of the right level and resources of the users, without any restrictions on the area being allocated" (Inter-ministerial order from MoF and the Land Management General Department, February 1991).

Finally, in August 1991, the policy had the force of law; the Forest Resource Protection and Development Act, in its Article 40 states "Forest users have the following rights:

• To use the forests and forest plantation lands on long term and sustainable basis in accordance with planning documents as set out by the State; to take the initiative in production and business as well as in management and utilization of the forest within the limits given by law.

• To enjoy the benefits resulting from labour and investments made in/on the allocated forests and forest plantation lands to bequeath, to transfer or sell the results or labour and investment made to other in accordance with the law.

• To benefit from technical services and financial support from the State and from public works for protection and rehabilitation of forests and forest plantation land.

• To have their legal rights and benefits regarding the allocated forests and forest plantation land protected by the State."

Effective results obtained

The above effective and open minded policies have encouraged national organizations, enterprises, cooperatives, State farms, production teams, schools, army units, and in particular thousands of farmers to develop forest land farming through tree planting. Poor farmers had financial support from the Government (mainly through loans granted at low rates of interest for the whole felling cycle) and even food aid. Entrepreneurs have been involved in the business, as the returns from their investment in tree planting seemed to be reasonable.

By adopting an open door policy, the Government has encouraged foreign firms to make investment, and many other international aid agencies and NGOs, to provide the necessary assistance. For example, the two WFP projects (No. 3352 for the period 1989-93 and No. 4304 for the period 1992-96) have provided necessary food aid for farmers to establish 206,000 ha of plantations with the participation of not less than 300,000 households. According to the records available as of 1990 some 4,400,000 ha of forest plantation land have been allocated to people, of which 2,900,000 ha were open lands and denuded hills. Nearly 1,300,000 ha have began to be productive with 276,200 ha being managed as forest gardens, and 984,500 ha being re-generated through plantation and protection.

The agents involved in activities related to the implementation of LFAP are: 2,638 communes, 7,447 cooperatives and production teams, 716 organizations and 473,500 households. These are now practicing forest plantation, maintenance and protection (Thirty years: 1961-91 of Forestry Department, MoF, 1991).

CONCLUSIONS

It is desirable to point out the main causes of the first success gained in forest plantation, in particular in eucalypt plantations, in Vietnam. These are:

• First, the LFAP of the Government has defined the rights of farmers' households on land use, thus encouraging them to manage and use land with care and responsibility.

• Food aid is made available from WFP projects. The aid is highly important to farmers because with it, they have the opportunity to carry forest plantation as they wish.

• Advanced techniques and technical assistance from the Forest Services have helped farmers to build up productive plantation stands.

• After planting, the plantations are their own, so farmers are actively involved in plantation maintenance and protection. (Daily "Nhan Dan", 29 March 1993).

"It is possible to conclude that LFAP plays a key role in promoting the production of fuelwood" (Fuelwood and Energy Sectoral Review, Fuelwood Supply Analysis, K.M. Gray, FAO, Hanoi, 1991).

REFERENCES

Vietnamese:

Anon. 1960. Lam Binh Loi EAKMAT Station.

Anon. 1966. Forestry Department of Lang Hanh. Natural vegetation and man-made forests in Lang Hanh Forest Experimental Station.

Anon. 1982. FAO Les Eucalyptus dan les reboisements (Vietnamese translation).

Anon. 1988. LIKSIN. Programme for the Development of the Eucalyptus Plantation in Southern Provinces of Vietnam.

Anon. 1991a. MoF National Programme for Establishment and Development of Forests on 5 million ha.

Anon. 1991b. MoF. Thirty (30) years (1960-1990) of forestry development (Statistical Publish House, Hanoi, 1991).

Anon. 1991c. FIPI. Land suitability for plantation establishment in Vietnam.

Anon. 1992a. MoF Forest Review -1990-1991-1992.

Anon. 1992b. SRV. The forest resources protection and Development Act (Law Publish House, Hanoi, 1992).

Anon. 1992c. FIPI Project VIE/87/031. Report on the Pests and Diseases in Eucalyptus Plantations and Melaleuca Forest in the Long Xuyen Quadrangle (SVN).

Anon. 1992d. SRV. The Government policies on land and forest allocation.

Hoang Xuen Ty. 1984. Some Issues on Eucalyptus Species in Vietnam (Technical Bulletin, Sc. and Tch. Dep. MoF, February 1984).

Ngo Que, Hoang Xuan Ty, Ngo Duc Minh. 1991. Land Use Criteria and Zoning for Upland E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis Plantations in Quang Nam - Da Nang Province.

Nguyen Ngoc Binh. 1979. Case Study on Planting Eucalyptus in Vietnam (Technical Bulletin, Sc. and Tch. Dep. MoF).

Pham Ngoc Co., Hoang Chuong. 1991. Some case studies on plantation establishment on sulphated soils in Tan Tao area (FSI-1991).

Other languages

Anon. 1988. Proceeding of the "Use of Australian Trees in China" Workshop (Chinese Academy of Forestry, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Guangzhou, China).

Boland, D.J. 1989. Trees for the Tropics-Growing Australian multipurpose trees and shrubs in developing countries (Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, 1989).

Cao Van Tho, Clara Hellstrom. 1989. Growth Development in Plantations of Eucalyptus and Acacia mangium established in 1966. (Vinh Phu Pulp and Paper Mill).

Ckholun, E. 1984. Fuelwood: the energy crisis that won't go away (Earthscan, London, Washington).

Davidson, J. 1985. Setting aside the idea that Eucalyptus are always bad. UNDP/FAO, Project BGD/79/017, Bangladesh.

Florence, R.G. 1991. The Ecology of the Eucalypt Plantation (Paper presented to national seminar on "the Ecology of Eucalypt and the Effects of Eucalypts on the Environment", Hanoi, Vietnam, June 1991).

Gray, K.M. 1991. Fuelwood and Energy Sectoral Review - Fuelwood Supply Analysis (FAO, Hanoi 1991).

Nguyen Hoang Nghia. 1990. Report on Provenance Trials in Vietnam (FSIV, 1990).

Nguyen Van Tai, Nguyen Van Thon. 1971. La station experimentale de Lang Hanh.

Pandurang Ummaya, Bherat Dogra. 1983. Planting Trees - Indian villagers take the decision into their own hands (The Ecologist, India, Vol. 13, No. 5, 1983).

Vandana Shiva, J. Bandyopadhyay. 1983. Eucalyptus - a disastrous tree for India (The Ecologist, India, Vol. 13, No. 5, 1983).

APPENDIX 1

Height and diameter growth of Eucalyptus species and provenances, Dai Lai Station, 2 years age (1987-89)

Source: Report on provenance trials of Eucalyptus species in Vietnam, Nguyen Hoang Nghia, FSI, 1990

APPENDIX 2

Height and diameter growth of Eucalyptus species, Ma Da Station, 5 years age (1984-89)

Source: Report on provenance trials of Eucalyptus species in Vietnam, Nguyen Hoang Nghia, FSI, 1990