3. Fisheries and aquaculture extension services

3.1 Extension services organisation

3.1.1 Fisheries and aquaculture extension services and changes

Chinese modern fisheries only started in 1906, when the first powered trawler "Fu-Hai" was put into operation. Then the first fisheries school was established in Tianjin in 1910. After the republican revolution in 1911, the new government set up the Bureau of Fisheries under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, the first Chinese fisheries administrative institution of its kind. In 1921, the Jiangsu Fisheries School of Jiangsu Province established the Aquaculture Department, the first in the country. The school also constructed a freshwater fish farm. By 1929, the Aquatic Products Experimental Institute of Guangdong Province, had set up the first Aquaculture Section after other sections (Capturing, Processing, Investigation and Fishery Chemistry). In 1935, the Fisheries Training Course and the Fisheries Guide Training Course attached to the Aquatic Products Experimental Institute of Zhejiang Province were established. These can be considered as the first formal training courses on promoting applied fisheries technology and fisheries extension service.

Fisheries research and technology as well as the national fisheries extension system was established during the 1950s. Beginning 1952, fisheries technology extension stations were established one after another along the coastal areas in Yingkou, Qienhuangdao, Tangshan, Hangu, Huanghua, Yantai, Shidao, Zhoushan and Taishan, and inland areas in Huachuan, Fangzhen, Anxin, Wuxing, and Shaoxing. By 1957, more than 120 stations had been set up all over the country. But unfortunately, all the stations were abolished during the 1960s and 1970s.

3.1.2 Present system

The Bureau of Fisheries under the Ministry of Agriculture is not directly involved in fisheries extension work, but it is in charge of the formulation of plans for extension service development and coordination of activities in fisheries research, training and extension through its Science and Technology Division.

Since 1979, the government has placed emphasis on the restoration of the extension service system. The China National Fishery Technology Extension Centre was established in 1991 directly under the Ministry of Agriculture. It has the following major responsibilities.

• Formulating work plans and timetable on fisheries technology extension;

• Implementing extension plans and programmes;

• Stipulating regulations on fisheries technology extension;

• Summarising and exchanging experiences of extension services;

• Guiding the establishment of local fisheries technology extension system;

• Specifying technical standards and participating in the evaluation of fisheries scientific research results; and

• Organising inspections of fisheries technology extension projects and training activities for local extension staff.

At the end of 1994, 1,514 fisheries technology extension stations were set up: 37 at provincial level; 206 prefecture level; 116 county and 1,155 at township level. Staff complement totalled 13,269.

The Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Human Affairs issued the notice in 1992 for further establishment of fisheries technology extension organisation at towns/township level and defined the main tasks as follows:

• To spread and carry out the policies, regulations and rules on fisheries provided by the government;

• To formulate the towns/township fisheries techniques extension programme;

• To demonstrate new techniques and advanced methods and equipment;.

• To undertake extension projects as formulated by higher authorities;

• To train local fisheries technicians, fishermen, fishfarmers and administrators;

• To take charge of fish disease control;

• To provide technical service for the whole production cycle; and

• To exchange fisheries information and sum up the experience on extension service and fisheries management.

The China National Fishery Technology Extension Centre has the following departments: General Affairs; Extension; Exploitation and Systematic Construction; and Diseases Prevention and Treatment. It has a staff of more than 30, mainly technical personnel.

A local extension station is usually staffed by 10-20 persons depending on workload. Furthermore in a towns/township station, the number of workers is dependent on the aquaculture area within the station. The staff members are mainly from fisheries schools.

The China Society of Fisheries is also engaged in fisheries technology extension through its task of popularising scientific knowledge and providing technical services. The society has a Science and Technology Popularisation Group which is responsible for extension activities.

3.2 Extension policies, plans and programmes

The fisheries and aquaculture extension policies, plans and programmes are embodied in the Five-Year Fisheries Development Plan drawn up by the Bureau of Fisheries, and implemented by the institutions concerned under the Ministry of Agriculture.

3.2.1 Government policies

The Eighth Five-Year Fisheries Development Plan (1991-1995) and the Ninth Five-Year Fisheries Development Plan (1996-2000) comprise the basic framework for development policies which aim to attain sustainable and fast development of fisheries production including aquaculture, and sound management of fisheries and aquatic resources.

a. Policies

Beginning with the Ninth Five-Year Plan period, the primary policies to be pursued in the area of fisheries development were:

• Development of Aquaculture at full speed.

• Stabilisation of offshore fisheries.

• Expansion of distant water fisheries.

• Improvement of fisheries marketing and processing.

• Enhancement of fisheries law and regulation enforcement.

Emphasis were placed on the promotion of fisheries reform, exploitation, fisheries science and technology, fisheries marketing, and fisheries management.

The major objectives under the above policies and work plans were the following: i). a fisheries production of 28.5 million mt; ii). a rise in per capita fisheries production to 22.5 kg; (iii) total fisheries production value of 150 billion yuan; iv) fisheries export value exceeding USD4 billion; and v). an annual average income of fisheries population from 2,930 yuan in 1994 to 3,800 yuan in the year 2000.

The total fisheries production in the year 2000 should reach 28.5 million mt, an increase of about 5 million mt or 21 percent from the 1995 figure; while 85 percent of increased fisheries production was expected from aquaculture. The aquaculture sector would be the fastest growing in fisheries, an annual increase of 6.7 percent per year, from 12.7 million mt in 1995 to 17 million mt in 2000, accounting for about 59 percent of the total fisheries production. The fisheries production value would account for 12 percent of the total agriculture production value.

3.2.2 Plans and programmes

Fisheries production would increase each year. The measures of rational utilisation of natural fisheries resources, expansion of distant water fisheries, large-scale stocking programme and protection of fisheries environment would ensure the steady increase of production from capture fisheries. But owing to ecological limits, the increment of capture fisheries would be much lower than that of aquaculture. Obviously, reliance should be placed on rapid aquaculture development. Extension plans and programmes therefore focused on the following.

a. Extension of high yield intensive pond culture technology

• Promotion of systematic culture technology on high quality new species

• Reform and upgrade of standards of fish ponds

• Application of advanced culture appliances and machinery

• Promotion of better culture workmanship

• Aim at high production with good returns

b. Extension of shallow sea, mudflat and large/medium-sized water bodies culture activities and enhancement technology

• Promotion of mollusc and seaweed culture.

• Enhancement of shrimp through large-scale stocking in shallow sea.

• Enhancement of whitefish, freshwater smelt, river crab and others through stocking in lakes/reservoirs.

• Promotion of inland water "three-net" (net cage, net enclosure and net screen) culture techniques, especially techniques of high density intensive fish culture in small net cages.

• Increase of high-value fisheries products, supply for export markets and increased income of fisherfolk.

c. Extension of paddy field fish culture technology

• Promotion of rice-cum-fish bio-cycle technology, especially the adoption of models of planting paddy on ridges and fish culture in ditches, to achieve the goal of "thousand ji of rice with hundred ji of fish" production in 1 mu (2 ji=1 kg; 15 mu=1 ha), through paddy field culture engineering reform and complementary culture technology

• Promotion of paddy field culture with other high-value aquatic species, and foodstuff.

• Stabilisation of planting area of paddy field; and increase of rice production per unit area, overall production, production of fish, crab, as well as farmers income.

d. Extension of fish disease prevention and treatment technology

• Promotion of the culture of valuable species such as shrimp, softshell turtle, mandarin fish, river eel, sea cucumber and others. using bio-healthy culture technology.

• Application of water quality improvement, monitoring and forecasting technology into culture systems.

• Improvement of culture environment including water body and bottom conditions.

• Application of fisheries medicine.

e. Extension of aquatic product processing and integrated utilisation technology:

• Promotion mainly of freshwater fish and shellfish processing and their integrated utilisation.

• Promotion of fish skin for leather processing technology.

• Promotion of aquatic products for instant food, nutritional and health food processing technology.

• Improvement of aquatic product packing technology.

• Increase of value and market demand for aquatic products.

f. Extension of advanced and efficient applicable machinery and instrument

• Promotion of fishpond aerator, feeding machine, pond digging and clearing machine

• Promotion of axle drive generator, advanced satellite navigation receiver, energy-saving new model fishing net for trawling and fisheries resources protection.

Recent major aquaculture projects supported by the government are the following:

a. Establishment of national fisheries production bases

• Development of shallow water and mudflat mariculture in the Shandong peninsula, Liaoning peninsula and Bohai Bay.

• Integrated development of low-lying and saline-alkali wasteland along the Yellow River.

• Comprehensive development of large and medium sized lakes and reservoirs in the lower and medium reaches of the Yangtze River.

• Enhancement of mudflat resources in the East and South China Seas.

• Integrated development of mariculture in large islands.

• Comprehensive development of aquaculture in Hainan island.

b. Establishment of fish variety improvement system and construction of seed multiplication farms to raise black carp, grass carp, silver carp, bighead carp, Wuchang fish, mud carp, crucian carp and crab in the Yangtze valley, Pearl and Heilongjiang Rivers.

c. Establishment of and support to some fish disease preventing and treating stations at state and provincial levels in some selected cities and prefectures.

d. Research support for local and substitute protein resources for fish feed and feed production.

3.2.3 Funding

a. Government funding

The central government funds for aquaculture development are mainly embodied in the Funds Allocation to Capital Construction Investment Plan worked out by the Bureau of Fisheries. In 1978, the overall capital investment of the Bureau was 322 million yuan, of which only 11.53 percent or 37.5 million yuan was invested on aquaculture. The government has made aquaculture as the first priority in the fisheries development. Hence, in 1988 the funds allocated to aquaculture development increased to 179 million yuan, or 36.41 percent of the total capital construction fund (494 million yuan). In 1994, funds for aquaculture development further increased to 334 million yuan or 21.7 percent of the total funds. Aside from this, the funds allocated to science and education in the Plan are also used for the development of aquaculture in indirect ways.

Apart from the central government investments, local governments have their own funding plans for aquaculture development. The total aquaculture investments from local governments are higher than that from the central government.

b. External funding

Since its economic reform, the government has been carrying out policies to encourage foreign investment and rational utilisation of funds from international organisations and foreign governments. About 18 aquaculture projects have been aid-funded with a total amount of USD712 million from foreign sources and USD38.23 million and 256 million yuan from the country. The North China Mariculture and Resources Management Project and the Freshwater Integrated Aquaculture Development Project aided through loans of USD130 million from the Asian Development Bank and the Japanese Government are in the preparatory phase. During the 1980s, more than 130 joint venture enterprises were established with foreign investments of more than USD100 million.

c. Private-funded

During the 1980s, to ensure fish supply in large cities, a number of aquaculture production bases with a total area of 320,000 ha were constructed. Total investment was 5.4 billion yuan, of which more than 50 percent came from fishfarmers themselves and 2 billion yuan from bank loans; government investment was only 0.57 billion yuan. "Rely on the masses" is one of the important principles in the country and the government is promoting the establishment of the Fishery Village Cooperative Foundation to increase the investment capability of private sector.

3.3 Methods and systems of extension

The China National Fishery Technology Extension Centre and 1,586 extension stations at different levels all over the country are the main mechanism for fisheries technology extension services. The methods and systems of extension are as follows:

a. The National Fisheries Bumper Harvest Plan

In recent years, the aquaculture technology extension services have consisted of mainly carrying out extension duties through the National Fisheries Bumper Harvest Plan. This plan which started in 1987 is characterised by the promotion of advanced applicable new technology on a large scale to bring in a bumper harvest of aquaculture. By the end of 1994, a total of 33 programmes under this plan had been implemented, covering 560,000 ha culture area, increasing production by 500,000 mt, the value of production by 3.1 billion yuan and net profit by 1.6 billion yuan. More than 15 percent of the annual total aquaculture production growth was contributed by extension services. On average, through extension services the production of 1 mu (0.066 ha) of culture area increased by 57.2 kg valued at 300 yuan with a net profit of 163.3 yuan.

The principal point of the Bumper Harvest Plan lies in technology extension. Once a particular programme is implemented, the concerned research institutes, education departments and extension stations jointly formulate technical workplans, organise the training activities, and offer guidance and consultations. The implementation of programmes strengthens the links among research, education and extension; and improves relationships between technical workers and fishfarmers. During the period from 1992 to 1994, about 14,500 technical workers participated in the programmes; 760,000 technical brochures were printed and distributed; and 41,500 fishfarmers were trained. On average, one technical worker devoted to extension services covered 200 mu (13.4 ha). On the other hand, through the implementation of the programmes, extension services organisations were established at an accelerated rate and gained experience in extension activities.

The most important methods adopted for technology extension services in the Bumper Harvest Plan are the following:

• On-the-spot demonstrations as a model for extension. For instance, the programme of transplantation and enhancement of white fish under the Plan was carried out by seven provinces. Though it is a matured technology in other places, each province set up a demonstration culture base first. When it proved successful and demonstrated to the fishfarmer, it was extended to other lakes and reservoirs in the province by fish farmers. At the same time, the first demonstration base not only provided technical support but also served for a fry and fingerling supply site.

• Organisation of the technical coordination group to promote new technology extension. For the purpose of better implementation of the above-mentioned programme, the National White Fish Transplantation and Enhancement Technology Coordination Group was established. The group, headed by the Freshwater Fisheries Research Centre of the CAFS, consists of 50 members, mainly from research institutes, extension stations, production and administration units. It takes charge of training activities, technical exchange and the publication and distribution of newsletters and circulars. It also provides significant technical backup and spreads newly-developed technology and fresh experiences gained from the programme. It has played an important role in research, extension and education as a coordinator as well as a bridger for harmony among technical workers, production units and fishfarmers.

Besides the Bumper Harvest Plan, the extension stations also implement other aquaculture extension programmes assigned by the Bureau of Fisheries, usually by means of experiments and demonstrations.

b. Training

At the beginning of the 1950s, most fishfarmers in the country were illiterate or semi-illiterate. In 1960, even among employees in State-owned fish farms, the illiterate accounted for 17 percent, primary school level 58 percent, middle school level 24 percent and colleges/university level only 1 percent. A movement to wipe out illiteracy was launched in the early 1950s, and various on-the-job training courses for cadre trainees in rotation and specific technical training for fish farmers were organised frequently. In the past 10 years, 4 million persons including fishfarmers, fisheries cadres and employees have received training. Four national training centres in Wuxi, Huzhou, Shunde and Liaoyang were set up under the extension stations.

The "Green Certificate" system was adopted on a trial basis in the early 1990s, with nine counties and cities from six provinces selected to participate in the experiment. Those selected fishfarmers who had participated in one or two production cycles after training proved themselves to be qualified for their job. The trainees who passed the final examination were awarded "Green Certificate," called "Qualified and Skilled Fish Farmer Certification" by local authorities. Fishfarmers awarded this certification would enjoy priority in obtaining production contracts, technical information, extension service and loan support. Altogether, 552 Certificates were issued at the first training course. Obviously, this system has greatly stimulated fishfarmers to participate in training courses.

c. Mass media

Newsletters are released by the government at different levels from time to time as a means of information exchange on aquaculture development. More than 10 fisheries scientific magazines published by the Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences and its institutes, publish research work reports. Other professional fisheries magazines like Freshwater Fisheries, Marine Fisheries, Scientific Fish Farming, Fish Disease Study edited and published by the China Society of Fisheries (Table 7) are popular.

Table 7. Magazines published by the China Society of Fishery

In 1985, the China Agriculture Radio School set up a special department to establish a school-on-the-air, giving lectures on freshwater aquaculture on TV and radio. Since then, more than 20,000 trainees have graduated and become more capable skilled workers.

3.4 Transfer of culture technology

Usually, the transfer of culture technologies are done in accordance with the plans and programmes. But requests from individuals or groups are always satisfied.

3.4.1 Description and listing of technology packages

The following mature aquaculture technology packages are encouraged for extension dissemination by the government:

a. Artificial breeding of Chinese carps

In 1958, a breakthrough in artificial breeding of Chinese carps, a milestone in aquaculture development, was achieved by Chinese scientists. This has enabled sufficient supply of fry and fingerlings for large scale production in culture activities. In 1965, 25 provinces produced through artificial breeding 3.2 billion fry, accounting for 22 percent of total fry production. A significant increase was noted in 1994, when 228.3 billion fry were produced by artificial breeding, accounting for 92.2 percent of the total. This advanced technology is fully mature for a number of species, and should be extended to newly-developed culture areas as well as to the other species.

b. Large-scale high yield pond culture

Pond fish culture is the main method of inland water aquaculture; it contributes the major proportion in aquaculture output. Most pond culture areas are concentrated in the regions of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze and the Pearl Rivers delta, such as the area of "Nan, Zhong, Shun" (Nanhai county, Zhongshan county and Shunde county) in Guangdong Province, "Hang, Jia, Hu" (Hangzhou city, Jiaxing city and Huzhun city) in Zhejiang Province, and Suzhou city and Wuxi city in Jiangsu Province. Other culture ponds mostly scattered over vast rural areas comprise about 1.1 million ha, accounting for 78 percent of the total pond area of the country. Most of those ponds are in poor condition with low productivity.

Furthermore, in Wuxi city of Jiangsu Province, fishpond production reached 15 mt/ha on the average, but the provincial average is around 3 mt/ha, only a bit higher than the national average of 2.7 mt/ha. During the last 15 years, the pond culture area largely extended to the northern, northeastern and northwestern parts of China, covering the whole country except Tibet. The newly-created fish pond culture areas have low productivities. The gap between different areas in technology and production should be filled by extension services.

c. Culture of the traditional species

The production of Chinese carp is dominant in freshwater aquaculture output. A lot of efforts are therefore being made to promote the culture technology of traditional species.

d. Promotion of culture production in large and medium sized water bodies

Production in large and medium sized water bodies has been increased by semi-intensive and intensive culture technologies. Net cage, net screen, net enclosure and fishpen culture techniques are being promoted. In 1990, the net screen and net enclosure areas in open water reached 70,000 ha while the netcage culture area reached 500 ha. Some of them produced 900 mt/ha. Also being promoted in extension work is the use of shallow bays and caves of reservoirs and lakes blocked off by nets, screens or dikes as areas for fish breeding or fry and fingerling rearing areas to stock the open water bodies.

e. Introduction, transplantation and cultivation of new species

More than 30 new species have been introduced and cultured successfully, such as tilapia, catfish, seabasses, giant freshwater prawn, and bullfrog. The transplantation of whitefish, freshwater smelt, and others into selected lakes and reservoirs have brought about very good results. The introduction of new species has raised production and also diversified aquatic products and increased fish farmers' income.

f. River crab stocking

The breakthrough achieved in river crab artificial propagation and culture technologies has resulted in a rise in production of this high-value species in pond culture system. River crabs could be also stocked in open water to improve the natural resources and obtain good harvest.

g. Utilisation of green plants and silage in fish culture

The green plant and silage used as fish feed and green manure to fertilize water bodies are one of the new sources of fish feed. Their use reduces production cost.

h. Pellet feed processing and feeding technology

Pellet feed is used more and more in culture activities, especially in semi-intensive and intensive culture systems. A number of simple but efficient pellet processing methods and equipment have been developed. The annual production of compound feed has now reached about 10 million mt, of which 10 percent is high quality. Feed formulations, feed additives, feed processing, in combination with auto-feeding machine and proper feeding time schedule are all being promoted.

i. Fish health management

Training of fish farmers on fish health management through disease prevention and treatment is one of the most important services provided through extension.

j High yield and high profit integrated farming system

Fish farming, animal husbandry and crop farming are integral components of agricultural production activities. On the basis of available local resources, various combinations have been tested, and the results have shown these to be high-yielding and highly profitable.

k. Shrimp culture technology

Penaeid shrimp culture was employed from the end of 1970s and boomed in 1980s. Culture area for shrimps has now reached 146,600 ha, and production increased from 330 kg/ha to 1500 kg/ha in 1992. The breakout of shrimp disease in 1993 had disastrous results, leading to a sharp decline in total shrimp output by more than 60 percent. At present, the extension services place emphasis on shrimp disease prevention and treatment.

l. Shellfish culture technology

Since the introduction of the American gulf scallop in 1982, hatchery and culture technologies have been extended by a big margin. The culture area reached 26,500 ha with total production at 728,000 mt in 1993, and scallop has become a popular dish for ordinary people. At the same time, hatchery and culture technologies on abalone, oyster, and mussel have also been promoted.

m. Seaweed culture technology

Kelp and laver were cultured in great numbers following the success gained in artificial hatchery technologies in the 1950s and 1970s respectively. China's seaweed production was mainly contributed by kelp and laver which accounted for 92.2 percent of the 1992 production. The improvement and popularisation of seaweed processing technology have greatly stimulated fisherfolks' enthusiasm for the culture of these seaweed. The amount of supply for export is on the increase.

n. Marine finfish and crab culture technology

Since technical barriers of artificial breeding of marine finfish and crab were brought down for some species such as red porgy, black porgy, flounder, mullet, puffer, grouper, bass, and swimming crab, extension work has been going on at a fast pace, and large scale production initiated. Fish-cum-shrimp, shrimp-cum-crab and finfish net cage culture are being popularised.

o. Aquaculture machinery

The utilisation of hydraulic pond dredger, fishpond aerator, fish feed pelletizer, and other equipment has brought about increases in production, and the use of these machineries are being actively promoted through extension services.

3.4.2 Technology transfer by extension services and record-keeping

Considerable changes in extension service organisation and structure have taken place during the last four decades. Prior to this period, almost no extension service records are available. Under the recent economic reform, work is being done to restore the system of organisation. Computers are now used in administering the Bumper Harvest Plan. More than half of the programme executive units have been equipped with computers, which is beneficial both for administrative and record-keeping purposes.

Under the highly centralised planning system of the past, extension services were unrewarded. Today, the achievement of the extension objectives could elicit rewards.

3.5 Input supplies, equipment and subsidies

Under the rigid management system in the past, all production inputs including seed, feed and feed ingredients, fertiliser and pesticides could be only purchased according to set plans and prescribed programs of supply. Nowadays, while most farm inputs are locally available and can be purchased from the market, some are still insufficient.

A number of industries and even township industries are manufacturing aquaculture equipment and supplies such as pumps, aerators, diggers, net cages, and feeding machinery, there is no difficulty in obtaining these from local supplies.

3.5.1 Seed supply

Seed is considered as the fundamental input for aquaculture. Due to the success achieved in artificial breeding for a number of species and in large-scale extension of this technology, seed supply of the main cultured species is no longer a problem, except in special cases such as some newly developed areas, and some northern areas which rely on seed supply from the southern part of the country for earlier stocking. However, the fry of river eel which are gathered from the wild, fluctuates greatly year by year; so do groupers and giant perch. These species are of high demand and are exported. Efforts are being made to based these species artificially.

3.5.2 Subsidies and/or credit facilities

The government does not subsidise farm inputs except in very few cases. For instance, at the beginning of shrimp culture development, the government offered a 200 yuan/mu subsidy to fishfarmers for successfully creating culture ponds along the coast. There was no specific credit organisation for fisheries in the country at that time. Fishfarmers obtained credit support mainly through local branches of the Agriculture Bank of China (ABC) and Agriculture Credit Cooperation (ACC). Credit policy was formulated on the basis of national agriculture development strategy. Credit was largely used to support crop production, integrated development, technology extension, township and village enterprises and export-oriented agricultural industries. By the end of 1992, the accumulated credit by ABC and ACC had reached 1 059 billion yuan. The government is encouraging the development of agriculture industries of high production, high profit and superior quality; aquaculture possesses such features. For individual fishfarmers, credit through normal channels is still difficult to obtain. Some borrow loans from illegal private credit units which impose monthly interest as high as 20-30 percent. Aquaculture risk insurance is offered by insurance company, but premiums are rather high.

3.6 Control mechanisms

Fisheries technology extension organisations are under the leadership of the governments at the same levels. The National Fishery Technology Extension Centre is directly under the Ministry of Agriculture, which assigns the Bureau of Fisheries to supervise and monitor the centre. Extension policies, strategies, directions and plans should therefore be discussed and decided through the Bureau of Fisheries. The centre submits its periodic and annual reports regularly. It is responsible for the implementation of extension plans, and supervising and monitoring extension work all over the country. Beside a number of specific meetings and workshops, the centre holds an annual national conference on extension services to sum up experiences, evaluate approaches, discuss future direction and work plans, and assign tasks for next year. This type of conference is also held at different levels.

The structure and leadership of provincial and county extension stations are more or less the same as those of the national centre. These stations are supervised and monitored by local fisheries bureaus. They also receive professional guidance from the national centre.

As far as the supervision of extension services in the programme implementation is concerned, usually a leading group, consisting of administrators, professionals and logistics experts and a technical guidance group, is organised for each programme. The group is in charge of supervising and monitoring daily extension service work and it reports to the extension stations concerned. Extension services are now based on contract, and the reward is closely related to the profit gained from services. Obviously, this kind of practice has improved extension services.

3.7 Extension and research linkage

As stressed by the government, science and technology are primary productive forces; and economic growth must rely on science and technology and, in turn, science and technology must serve economic growth. This is an essential principle which has been put into practice and has been found to work quite well.

3.7.1 Relationship among research institutes, extension officers and producers

Extension is a bridge between research and production. As a rule, achievements obtained by research institutes are transferred to production units through extension stations. As far as a planned aquaculture development programme or project is concerned, usually a technical coordination group is set up under the leadership of the programme or project leading group, which consists of researchers, extension officers and producers. The technology extension task is sub-contracted under the production responsibilities system and runs in a more harmonious way.

Technology achievement is considered as a commodity. To further strengthen technology exploitation and extension, the process of transferring the technology into large scale production should be accelerated. More and more research institutes and researchers are directly engaged in extension services and even involved in production activities. On the other hand, more producers and extension technicians who finished from fisheries schools or higher also conduct their own research and base their experience and know-how from practice. Hence, the distinction of their professions becomes a bit unclear.

Before the economic reform, the linkages among research institutes, extension stations and production units were based on governmental planning and with no rewards. Today, it is still planned by the government but the extension service is contract-based and the contract provides adequate rewards for work well done.

3.8 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in extension

Promoting scientific knowledge and providing technical services are the most important activities carried out by the China Society of Fisheries. Founded in 1963, the Society has a membership of 15,000. Scientists, professionals or non-professionals related to fisheries can be members. Under the Society there are 15 professional commissions, such as Freshwater Pond Culture Commission, Mariculture Commission, Natural Water Bodies Farming and Resources Enhancement Commission (Fig 3). The Commission is composed of 20-50 specialists and holds annual academic workshops. Two national networks were organised recently, the Fish Diseases Prevention and Treatment Cooperation Network and the High Density Intensive Culture Technology Cooperation Network. These networks hold annual conventions, seminars, workshops and field visits.

Fig. 3. Societies under the China Fisheries Society.

Fishermen's Associations which are also engaged in extension services, come under several names (including the Fish Farmer Study Association, Fish Farming Technology Association, Shrimp Farmer Association, Fisheries Production Service, Fishermen Management Commission), but they have more or less the same characteristics. For instance, about 87 fishfarmer technology associations have been established in Hanchuan county with a membership of 3,160. They play an important role in extending fish culture technology.