Arid zone countries with basically an agricultural economy depend entirely on a sustained supply of irrigation water from the vast watershed areas. Watershed inhabitants are using these areas for grazing and cultivation, an age old practice adversely affecting the state of vegetal cover, soil stability, and quality and quantity of water yield. The bare compacted soil gets the direct impact of rain resulting in accelerated runoff and initiating sheet, rill and gully erosion. The consequences are flash floods, deteriorated water quality, increased sediment load, silting up of costly reservoirs, damage to the livestock and human population, crops, habitations and infrastructure.
Although overgrazing, cultivation of steep slopes, and removal of vegetation have caused extreme degradation and depletion of the watersheds, opportunities exist for the rehabilitation and restoration of such areas. Studies conducted in different parts of the world have amply demonstrated that with some reasonable inputs such as fertilization, reseedings, closures, etc., it is still possible to reverse degradation. This is inspite of constraints such as lack of proper policy and legislation, inadequate funding, shortage of trained manpower, etc. which impede proper management of watersheds. In Pakistan, several projects have been launched and evaluated in the last two or three decades to find out the impact of improvement measures, all indicating a very positive effect of soil and water conservation measures and afforestation practices.
Future strategies and approaches can take several forms: technical, administrative, and research, all focussing on stabilizing the ecological equilibrium of watersheds, and in the process improving the socio-economic conditions of the people. These would include proper animal husbandry, and agronomical practices, planting of fruit trees, supply of commercial energy to take pressure off the vegetation together with well planned, integrated multipurpose programmes. Some very important research programmes such as, study of socioeconomic conditions of the people, blending of silviculture with exploitation, assessment of information on hydrological cycles, grazing management, etc., are also required.
With all the possible inputs, the man in the watershed still remains the most important component of the entire watershed system. The key issue is as to how far the people can be motivated, involved and organized to go along [with management]. Without that, no significant improvement in the existing situation should be expected.
Most of the Afro-Asian countries have predominantly agricultural economies. Due to arid and semi-arid conditions, success of all agriculture is entirely dependent on a sustained supply of water from rivers, reservoirs and canals. Water flows into these systems from vast watershed areas. Due to centuries of use as grazing lands by local inhabitants and migratory graziers, the soil-water-plant complex of these watersheds has been totally upset. Land holdings are usually small; the average size of a farm is less than half a hectare. Income derived from ill-managed farms is too small to sustain the evergrowing family. To supplement, they keep large herds of ill-nourished sickly goats, sheep, and cattle which freely roam around in overgrazed pastures devouring whatever vegetation is within their reach. People living in the uplands have no access to gas, kerosene oil or electricity. To keep themselves warm and to cook their food they have to cut wood, legally or illegally. Thus, cultivation on steep slopes which are fit only for afforestation, and the removal of vegetation, including overgrazing, have resulted in a devastation of watersheds.
² Paper presented by Philippe Alirol, ICIMOD.
Overgrazing has an adverse effect on vegetation, soil stability and quality and quantity of water yields, starting in fact, a chain reaction. Of course, the first to suffer is the vegetation. Overgrazing incapacitates the plant, depriving it of all its growth potential. Due to loss of foliage and disturbance of roots, plants are neither able to synthesize food nor absorb water and nutrients for their existence. No seed is formed, natural regeneration is checked, plants lose their vigor and are unable to stand the adverse climatic and edaphic factors. Since desirable plants are preferred, these are the first to disappear, allowing the undesirable ones to overtake. Later on, undesirable plants also vanish. Whatever is left, is uprooted for heating and cooking.
Amin and Ashfaq (1983), after studying the condition of ranges in northern and northeastern Pakistan between 20-40° N latitude, concluded that nomadic grazing is the major cause of range deterioration in the watersheds. The graziers migrate to upper Neelam Valley in summer and move down to southern ranges of the same area in winter. Grazing lands are an important natural resource because 90 percent of the population lives in rural areas and depends on primitive agriculture and animal husbandry. The survival and prosperity of a large population depends on the proper utilization of these lands. An important finding of the authors was an increase in the goat population compared to cattle and sheep. Whereas goats can reach the most difficult sites, can climb small trees, and devour bitter and thorny bushes which other animals cannot, livestock other than goats have been ousted. With the disappearance of more nutritious and palatable forage the nutritional status of vegetation has become depleted.
The effect of grazing is discernable not only in moist temperate areas but also in low rainfall tracts. While evaluating rangelands of arid zones in Baluchistan (Pishin-Quetta area is 1500 to 3500 m elevation with 214-235 mm average annual rainfall), Baig (1981) discussed the effect of grazing on plant communities. The areas surveyed by him had been subjected to intensive grazing, cutting [of wood] for fuel and for producing crude soda, used for washing clothes. Forage productivity had reached the lowest ebb of its potential. Rill and gully erosion had started and was progressing at a rapid rate.
The second important effect of overgrazing is on soil stability. If a large number of animals keep visiting the same site every year the soil gets compacted, retarding growth of vegetation. In low rainfall zones cattle break the soil loose which ultimately either gets washed down or is blown away by wind, exposing parent material in the process. Bare soil is exposed to incessant direct impact of rain resulting in accelerated runoff initiating sheet, rill and gully erosion. To get a few quintals of grain, the people cultivate precipitous slopes. When the rains come, the bulk of the soil along with crops goes "down the drain." In Pakistan, cultivation of potatoes has been started in the moist temperate forests. This is an extremely soil disturbing crop but nevertheless its cultivation is expanding due to handsome monetary returns.
Sheikh (1984) reported the results of a study on infiltration rates, moisture percent, and soil porosity in areas closed and open to grazing in the Ziarat Valley of Baluchistan. Infiltration rates, [soil] moisture percent at saturation, and soil porosity were significantly higher in the fenced area as compared to the unfenced.
Thirdly, as overgrazing destroys plant cover there is a decrease in both interception and infiltration, leading to enhanced surface runoff. Since there is no humus layer, the waterholding capacity of soil is reduced. There is no vegetation to retard the-flow of water carrying large quantities of sediment in its wake. The consequences are flash floods, deteriorated water quality, increased sediment load, silting up of costly storage dams and reservoirs, and damage to livestock, human populations, crops, habitation, and communication systems. To quote an example of devastation caused [aggravated]3 by destroying the equilibrium in watersheds in Pakistan, major floods have caused monetary losses of about US$3000 million and have resulted in the death of 6000 people and an enormous loss of livestock. In the 1973 and 1976 floods over 8 million ha of land were inundated and up to 70 percent standing agricultural crops were lost. These floods were a major factor responsible for insufficiency of food and subsequent higher import bills in the years to follow.4 Similar situations exist in other Asian countries where every year there are reports of colossal loss of life and property caused by floods.
³ Ed. note - as pointed out in earlier papers.
Juniper tracts of Baluchistan provide a classical example of watershed misuse by the local population of men and livestock. Except in the valleys where deep soils have been built up, most of the hillsides have either become bare or actively eroding. Natural regeneration of juniper is absent due to a variety of reasons. If tender seedlings manage to survive, they are trampled or browsed by vast hordes of sheep, goats and other livestock not only of the local tribes but by thousands which come from across the border every year. All the adverse climatic, biotic and socio-economic factors have jointly contributed to make this forest deficient province (only 2.0% of the total land mass) a treeless tract. Nevertheless, preservation of the human environment in this tract is essential to several sectors of national economy. These include agriculture, fruit culture, forestry, animal husbandry and tourism.
Bochet (1983) analyzed the current situation in the watersheds of countries such as Ethiopia, Indonesia, Korea, India, Iran, Morocco, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and Tunisia. According to him and other authors, the ecosystem has totally been disturbed due to heavy population pressure of men and animals. Misuse of resources has resulted in degradation of soil fertility, accelerated soil and water erosion, and siltation of river beds and dams. Shifting agriculture and pastoral activities, fires, mining, deforestation, and construction of infrastructure have all contributed to the present state of affairs almost reaching the point of no return in certain countries. The people are attached to the traditional ways of life of their forefathers, refusing to leave their pastoral and nomadic way of life, and oblivious to the catastrophe. They come from a variety of social, cultural, economic and religious affiliations and backgrounds, making the solution all the more difficult. As a matter of fact, the steps taken by the government to improve their living conditions are not greeted with enthusiasm. Inspite of that, some positive measures have been taken to improve the situation. This includes enlisting the services of soil and water conservation, range management and afforestation experts and improvement and evaluation of socio-economic conditions. Relevant research programmes have been put into operation. Motivation of the local population is being attempted through credit on easy terms, provision of subsidies and material, establishment of cottage industry, launching of village development association movements, and education of the people as well as extension workers. Development projects have been started with definite objectives, targets and methods of operation and execution in these countries.
Substantial portions of all major continents are rangeland. Most of the lands designated as forests or deserts are also grazed. It is estimated that 34 percent of the land area of Eurasia and about 32 percent of that of Africa comprises rangelands. Grazing lands and forage support 30,000 million domesticated grazing animals and hence most of the world's production of meat and milk (Stoddart et al., 1975). Two thirds of Pakistan is used only for grazing by domestic animals. Thus, rangelands constitute the single biggest land-use in most of the AfroAsian countries. Cattle are primarily kept for draught power, milk and meat and are either wholly or partially supported by natural ranges. A study of the Hazara region in Pakistan indicates that rangelands are providing up to 50 percent of the yearly forage demand of livestock (Khan, 1971). The figure for Baluchistan is well over 70 percent.
4 National Flood Protection Plan - 1978. National Engineering Services (Pakistan),Limited.
The carrying capacity of rangelands is highly variable, ranging from 100 ha/animal unit/year in the arid, eroded cold deserts, to less than one hectare in the moist tropical Savannahs. The stocking rate is much higher than the carrying capacity in all of the Middle Eastern and African countries. There are two reasons why large herds of animals are kept; as a status symbol and for survival. Large herds in developing countries are kept for prestige and status to meet the cultural obligations at times of marriage or death in the family. For the majority of the poor and nomadic families, animals are a source of subsistence and survival. As the human population grows, so does the number of grazing animals to meet the ever increasing demands. In the case of seasonal migratory graziers, the range receives some rest, but this is not so when the system is sedentary and the animals use rangelands year-round.
The fact must be emphasized that in developing countries, livestock are not usually stall-fed but roam around freely in the natural ranges. No doubt excessive grazing is detrimental but the contribution of livestock to national economies is tremendous. Pakistan is a good example of Afro-Asian countries. According to Pakistan Statistical Bulletin 1983, livestock contributed 28 percent of the gross production value of agriculture in Pakistan. Out of this, half is contributed by rangelands. Livestock provides all the motive power for agricultural operations. This is the only source of milk, butter, curd, cheese and an assortment of preparations. Other by-products are hides and skins, wool, hair, bones and manure for local use. Animal dung contributes up to 18 percent of the total requirement for fuel.
Management of rangelands is essential from other points of view as well. Diets in the developing countries are alarmingly low in animal protein. Against the optimum level of 68.5 grams/person/day, the protein consumption figure of Pakistan is 45.8 grams, of which animal protein is only 12.2 grams. No wonder two-thirds of the Pakistani nation suffer from protein deficiency. The estimated population of livestock, according to 1976 census, is 69 million head which are either wholly or partially supported by natural ranges.
On the other hand, due to mismanagement, most of the rangelands in Pakistan are producing hardly 10-50 percent of their potential. Deterioration in range productivity has naturally resulted in reduced quantitative and qualitative production of range livestock and their products.
Although overgrazing, cultivation on steep slopes, and removal of vegetation have resulted in extreme degradation and depletion of watersheds, ample opportunities exist for the rehabilitation and restoration of such areas. Studies conducted in different parts of the world have amply demonstrated that with some reasonable inputs and effort it is still possible to reverse the situation.
It is imperative that every effort be made to improve rangelands through fertilization, reseeding, closures, etc. It has been established through trials that forage yields can be increased by adding chemical fertilizers. In a study conducted in the chir pine zone it was found that while nitrogen and phosphorus were applied alone, air dry forage yields were 1632 and 1975 kg/ha but when nitrogen and phosphorus were applied in mixture at the rate of 50 kg N and 50 kg P/ha the yield was almost doubled (3133 kg/ha) (Khan, 1981). Similarly, forage yields of grasses and forbs in the moist temperate forests can be significantly increased. In one study, grasses and forbs inside an enclosure respectively yielded 1204 and 7439 kg/ha of forage while outside yields were 1059 and 2011 kg/ha (Khan, 1977b). In a similar study conducted in Ziarat Valley, average air dry forage production from ungrazed and grazed areas was 584 and 83 kg/ha, respectively (Khan, 1977a).
Studies on reseeding conducted in moist temperate forests of Pakistan have indicated
that species such as Trifolium patens and Vicia sativa can be successfully introduced in
the area with advantage. Average yield of these two species was 1630 and 1693 kg/ha
compared to Lotus corniculatus and Medicago sative which was only 87 kg/ha in both the
cases (Noor, 1978).
Denudation and weathering processes in uplands are two important factors affecting
the stability of the physical system in watersheds. Productivity and stability
are [also] intimately connected with the complexities of the social order. Population
density, ownership patterns and the lack of mutual understanding between government
workers and the people all affect the ways in which available resources are
used. Prevalence of extreme poverty threatens long-term stability of the natural
system and the socio-political system. This implies that more equitable distribution
of benefits obtained as a result of increases in output may be essential to
achieve long term stability (Anon, 1978).
Watershed management implies an integrated approach of land-use in watersheds for the benefit of local people in particular and the rest of the country in general. Once this concept is accepted, management and development of mountain forests is quite possible even in [apparently] hopeless cases. People in the uplands are managing to live at just about subsistence level with too little education and skills to improve their lot. On the other hand, people and cattle are multiplying at a very high rate. For instance, the catchments of the Indus liver are among the most densely populated areas in Pakistan, with about 2400 people per km of cultivated land and 37 percent of the hillside and valleys under cultivation. The rate of soil loss in the region is far in excess of natural replacement from rock weathering.
The investment of public resources in upland development is fully justified by even the most stringent rate of return criteria. Whether or not research studies clarify upstream downstream interactions, the welfare of an important part of the population is at stake unless massive upland environmental rehabilitation is done in earnest. A survey in Pakistan has indicated that landowners are not entirely against planting trees on their lands, provided planting is done at a wide spacing to allow the grass to come up underneath. Establishment of demonstration plantations on the property of certain progressive farmers was enough to attract the attention of the others. Keeping animals away only for one season allowed the trees to get established and lush, green nutritious grasses to appear. Impressed, quite a few others offered their land for planting of forest and fruit trees and also voluntarily kept their animals back. The experiment opened the way for one of the largest silvopastoral programmes in the country (Sheikh, 1980).
Apart from human and livestock population pressures and multifarious activities and requirements, there are some fundamental constraints to achieving proper management of rangelands in watersheds.
Lack of Policy and Legislation
In most countries in Asia and Africa a well thoughtout policy on the maintenance of rangelands and watersheds does not exist. Neither the objectives of range management have been well-defined, nor have the means to achieve them been properly conceived and understood. Some brave attempts of enthusiastic individuals have not shown much impact. In fact, these have often caused confusion and mistrust. There is no legal framework or support for range management and watershed management programmes. There is no central agency for coordinating the disjointed activities undertaken by a number of mushroom agencies and organizations. This has resulted in haphazard and overlapping development programmes. The good or bad work done by an organization is not known. Absence of a high-powered organization at provincial and national levels is a single most important reason for lack of attention and poor performance.
Inadequate Funding
The benefits of watershed management practices undertaken by the government go to the
individual owners of rangelands or graziers. The public projects are usually evaluated on
economic criteria such as benefit/cost ratio and, therefore, public money is hard to come
by. On the other hand, individual holdings of people and their resources are so small that
they do not have sufficient money to spend on soil and water conservation work or
improvement of grazing facilities. They are usually under the impression that it is the
duty of the state to provide reasonable help to improve their lands. Anyway, allocation
of funds for management of rangelands and watersheds is not commensurate with the gravity
of the situation. The result is that even the modest targets fixed in development plans
are not achieved due to inevitable cuts in the budget for this sector which is considered
unproductive and less rewarding by bureaucrats.
Lack of Trained Manpower
Qualified and technical personnel., capable of delivering the goods to the entire satisfaction of the people, are not available in the developing countries. This is a severe handicap. An individual, trained abroad at high cost either does not come back at all, or he leaves for more lucrative jobs at the first available opportunity. The answer to this problem, which also is a human problem, is to provide training to a much bigger group of people either by sending them abroad or by enlisting the services of several foreign experts to prepare a corps of dedicated individuals in the country.
A large number of case studies have been conducted in different parts of the world to find out the feasibility and impact of watershed management practices. Some studies pertaining to the work done in India, Philippines and Pakistan are being reported.
Rehabilitation of Siwalik Lands in India
Pant (1983) reported the progress of a land rehabilitation project in India. The project began with the objectives of conserving soil and water and to improve land utilization. The first step was the construction of three earthen dams in the project area. Other activities included soil and water conservation techniques, river training, introduction of new varieties of seeds and fertilizers, terracing, improvement of breeds of cattle, and planting of Iple-Iple as an alternative source of fodder and fuel. The project was put into operation in February, 1980. Benefits of the project include an increase in biomass. Trees, shrubs and grasses in the catchment area should increase due to closure and planting of Eulaliopsis binata (bhabbar) and Acacia catechu (Khair). The density of the tree crop and the quality of the grasses are likely to improve with time. The value of the increase in biomass is expected to be US$200 per hectare in the tenth year. The yield of grass is likely to [increase] ten times within a span of ten years.
The Pantabangan Watershed and Soil Conservation Project in the Philippines
Reyes and Mendoza (1983) assessed the Pantabangan Watershed Management Programme. The watershed covers an area of 91,650 hectares feeding the biggest multipurpose dam of the Philippines. The project aims at rehabilitation of the watershed for multiple uses such as water production, conservation and regulation, together with improving the economic condition of watershed inhabitants. The project is planned for 25 years (1980-2005) with certain targets in view. When implemented, there should be a reduction in the sedimentation of the reservoir through better vegetation cover, improved grazing, proper land management, fire prevention and protection. Controlled harvesting and improvement of the primary forest is also included in the project. On the aggregate, taking into account the necessary infrastructure and costs to make each of the components successful including social services and fire protection, the economic analysis has shown a financial internal rate of return of 19 percent.
Socio-economic Impact of Watershed Management Practices in the Himalayas, Pakistan
Anwar and Khattak (1980) conducted a study in the Himalayan foothills to find out the socioeconomic impact of a watershed management programme in selected villages in Mansehra. The first objective of the project was to improve the socio-economic condition of the people. Specifically the programme proposed to:
i) find out the response of villagers to large scale tree planting,
ii) identify the programme's likely consequences on the household and land-use pattern,
iii) identify problems likely to be faced by the farmers and,
iv) collect benchmark data for use in assessment of other such situations.
Relevant data were collected regarding land-use pattern, livestock, social and economic features, customs and traditions, occupations, population trends, firewood and timber requirements, size of holdings, and education levels.
The functionaries were of the view that substitution of open-range grazing by grass cutting had improved vegetation and had reduced runoff. This was duly substantiated by experiments. However, it was considered desirable that an intensive programme of fodder production be started for situations when trees will not let the grass grow due to shading.
Beneficiaries of the programme were happy as they found jobs, their fields were terraced and leveled, and they received apple and other fruit trees and pines for short term and long term benefits. The main difficulty in expanding the programme is grazing by stray cattle owned by people who did not join the project actively. The beneficiaries also complained that it involved too much labour to cut grass and stall feed the cattle. Nevertheless, they admitted that production of grass had been more than doubled.
Potential of Alpine Grazing Lands, Pakistan
Alpine meadows are a source of substantial food for livestock during summer months. The graziers move to warmer sites in the plains during winter. The pattern of nomadic pastoral life is fully established and grazing is practised without any concept of the principles of conservation. Every nook and corner is extensively grazed.
Hussain (1968) assessed the condition of the Alpine meadows in a study undertaken in Kaghan Valley in the moist temperate forests of Pakistan. Quantitative data about cover, species composition, frequency, density and soil characteristics were collected. The condition of the range turned out to be "High Fair" in spite of the high grazing pressure. He concluded that Alpine grazing lands can play a major role in increasing yield of clear water by retaining precipitation, reducing runoff and preventing erosion. The study further indicated that the adverse effect of grazing could be minimized by reducing animal numbers, by delaying entry of animals in the pastures, by distributing livestock properly, and by eradicating woody plants to promote grass.
Living Conditions of the people of Murree Hills, Pakistan
Murree Hills High Powered Commission was set up by the Government of the Punjab, Pakistan, in the mid-fifties to prepare a report on the existing way of life in the Murree hills and to suggest ways and means to improve the socio-economic condition of people living there (Anon, 1954). It was found that the average monthly income of a family did not exceed US$8.00. This income was earned by heavy physical labour, involving a walk of several kilometers a day, offset by diseases, dietary imbalance, malnutrition ; etc. Sick men bad to be carried over long distances on cost with no civic amenities available. People of the tract were the poorest in the province. Historically speaking, the conservancy and needs of the people have always clashed in such areas.
Recommendations made by the Commission included shifting part of the population to the plains; proper terracing of the land; stabilization of the rights of the people for fuelwood, timber, grazing, lopping, etc.; development of infrastructure, health, and sanitation; consolidation of [land] holdings; artificial regeneration of forest land; stopping illegal conversion of forest land; improvement in the cropping pattern; and setting up of miscellaneous cottage industries. In view of the tremendous devastation caused by free roaming cattle, goats and sheep, it was recommended that grazing of horned cattle should be stopped forthwith and stall feeding enforced. It was further suggested that grass cutting should be allowed by free permits, fodder be made available from the forest shrubbery and that rearing of sheep should be encouraged to replace goats. In fact, total banishing of goats was suggested from the area to save the vegetation.
Some of these recommendations have already been followed. However, it has not been possible to commute the rights of people for grazing, lopping, fuel and timber and thus damage to vegetation continues un-abated. The result is that this beautiful hill resort is now afflicated with a large number of land-slips.
The Conditions in Northern Areas
Aleem (1980), while studying range management in northern areas of Pakistan, reported that the level of livestock husbandry is extremely primitive. Thousands of animals die each year due to various preventable diseases, but the cures are not within reach of the people. He reported that apart from physical factors such as soil and climate, there are other problems hampering proper utilization of grazing land. These include keeping large livestock numbers as a matter of prestige; the lack of government control on grazing or proper utilization of ranges; rangelands are communally owned so no one is interested in their preservation or development; being poor, stockmen are not in a position to adopt better management techniques; acquisition of land for grazing management is resented; and properly trained personnel are not available to help stockmen solve their problems. The author has suggested establishment of an extension service with the objectives of improving animal health, achieving effective marketing, and reducing the number of animals, thus leading to eventual improvement of vegetal cover and raising the nutrition level of livestock.
The Chitral District
Sheikh and Khan (1983) reviewed the forestry and range management situation in the district of Chitral in the northern-most tip of Pakistan. The tract forming part of Chitral river watershed has numerous valleys towards the main water body and lies between 35° and 37° N latitude. The tract is generally rough, rugged and mountainous. Range management is the biggest land use. The only important fodder crops in the district are Trifolium resup-inatum (Shaftal) and Medicago sativa (Lucerne). Stalks of maize, wheat, rice and pulses are a good source of feed. Alpine pastures are excellent summer grazing grounds while oak trees bear the livestock pressure during winter. Some range areas are protected from grazing during summer, and vegetation is cut in autumn and stored and fed to the livestock during winter. A very healthy practice of "Hujjat" is also in vogue in which a deteriorated range area is completely banned for any type of use for a number of years to improve vegetation vigor and ensure regeneration of good forage species. This is a good example of an understanding and cooperation between local communities. The authors have suggested that efficiency of utilization of residual agricultural crops can be increased by chopping the materials before feeding them to the animals. They have further suggested a reconnaissance survey of Chitral district rangelands to determine the combined carrying capacity of cropland, rangeland and forest land and to indicate potential areas for development.
In Pakistan, like many other countries of the world, a number of projects began in the last two or three decades to find out how the catchments were responding to current use, what would be the effect of closure to grazing, to what extent vegetation was regulating soil and water loss, and what would be the impact of improvement measures. The projects have been evaluated and the outcome is briefly described below.
Effects of Watershed Management Practices in the Semi-arid and Subtropical Zone
A study is being conducted on two comparative watersheds, 81 hectares each in the subtropical zone, with objectives of determining the effectiveness of erosion control measures on release of water and sediment. The experimental area is partially closed to grazing while the area labeled as "control" is open to grazing. In all years, runoff and sediment from the area closed to grazing has been less than that from the area open to grazing. For instance, over a period of nine years there was on the average 33 percent decrease in the runoff and 52 percent decrease in sediment release due to treatment of the watershed (Hanif, 1979; Sheikh, 1983).
Effect of Plants on Runoff and Sediment Release in Hazara
Afforestation with Pinus roxburghii and Robinia pseudoacacia has been carried out on private lands in the Himalayas in Pakistan (Anon., 982). Runoff and sediment delivery from the planted areas when grazing was controlled was compared with that from areas where grazing was allowed. At Balakot, runoff and sediment delivery was lower from ungrazed areas with chir pine plus grass than from plots under natural vegetation but open to grazing. Similarly at Batagram, the other site, runoff and sediment delivery was least from ungrazed plots under Robinia pseudoacacia cover with grass due to the fast growth of the trees. Maximum runoff and sediment were produced from plots under natural vegetation but open to grazing, the ratio being 1:3 and 1:4 for runoff and sediment loss, respectively.
Kaghan Valley Watershed Management Programme
Mohammad (1968) conducted a critical appraisal of the Kaghan Valley Watershed Management Project. The purpose of this project was to rehabilitate and stabilize an area of about 50 square km of badly eroded hill lands around Kunhar River and to preserve the vegetative cover. The project prohibited cultivation on steep slope lands, provided terracing of eroded and gullied land, accomplished planting of fruit, fodder and forest trees, and compensated owners for displacement if any occurred.
As a result of the soil and water conservation measures taken, the yield of agricultural crops improved. Grasses from treated areas showed promise and the inflow of sediment was reduced because of terracing and the channelization and stabilization of annual and perennial streams. Peach, plum, apricot, almond, and apple trees introduced in the project area have started bearing fruit, thereby increasing the income of farmers.
The Bhurban Project - Murree Hills
Rana (1968) conducted an economic evaluation of the Bhurban Watershed Management Project, which was aimed at rehabilitating about 33 sq km of badly eroded, hilly land with steep slopes, draining into Mangla Watershed. The project stopped cultivation on lands above 50 percent slope and terraced areas with less than 50 percent slope. Fruit, fodder and forest trees were planted on land taken out of cultivation. Compensation was made for the rights of the people; land in the plains was acquired to compensate those whose land was to be taken out of cultivation.
In the view of the evaluator, the project was a success. The forest wealth increased to a considerable extent and the area served the purpose of demonstration. Subsequent projects in other parts of the country owe their initiation to the success of this particular project. Planting of apple trees in the area turned out to be a real boon to the inhabitants. Their standard of living rose appreciably and visibly as they constructed new houses with galvanized iron sheet roofing instead of the usual mud roofs and walls.
Benefits From the Soil Conservation Practices
Qureshi and Ahmad (1968) evaluated the soil conservation project in the over-grazed and degraded lands of Punjab, Pakistan. Improvement work included construction of engineering structures, contouring, terracing, tree planting and land management. The programme was implemented with the cooperation of the landowners at a 50 percent subsidized rate. This particular study was conducted to examine the economic return pattern between two types of farms, untreated and treated, comparing labour costs, capital expenditure, gross and net income, cropping pattern and intensity.
Due to adoption of the improved practices, average net income rose from US$6.3 to 36.0 per hectare.
To improve the over-grazed, highly degraded and denuded watersheds, a concerted, allembracing national level effort is required. Since the watersheds are inhabited by a multitude of human and cattle populations, it has become more of a social problem than a technical one. A good watershed management approach has to be technically feasible and socially acceptable, accommodating the bare minimum needs of the people.
Strategies and approaches can take several forms -- technical, administrative and research -all focussing on the improvement of the socio-economic conditions of the people.
Technical Approaches
Preservation and Improvement of Rangeland Vegetation
Rangeland improvement can be achieved through proper grazing control, developed as a system by involving the people who live there. Scientific management of rangelands can go a long way in enhancing their productivity. Partial or complete closures in certain areas through rotational or deferred grazing reinforced with reseeding can be emphasized. Benefits of regulated grazing can be demonstrated effectively by developing model pastures either on state land or on the lands of some volunteers to achieve a make-believe effect. The concept of group grazing can also be introduced. The protection of forested land, which is an erstwhile resource of fodder, fuel and grazing, must go hand in hand with the protection and improvement of pastures. Some unproductive lands designated as forests can best be managed as pastures.
Improvement of Animal Husbandry
At present there are many forest lands and rangelands with unproductive livestock grazing.
To reduce grazing pressure, one remedy is to persuade farmers to cull unproductive
animals. It is also necessary that livestock are stall-fed. The situation could also be
improved to a great extent by selecting breeds of animals for better production and yield.
Comprehensive inventories about ecological, sociological and livestock components of range
ecological systems form a sound basis for developing a balanced and feasible operational
programme.
Improvement in Cultivation Practices and Soil Stabilization
At present agricultural yields in watershed areas are very low because of the use of outdated and inefficient techniques and inadequate knowledge. Improvement measures should reduce soil exposure, improve surface storage, increase infiltration and reduce damage. The methods to achieve desired objectives include use of fertilizers and green manuring, preservation of stubble and crop residues, proper crop rotation, ploughing along the contours, bench terracing and subsoiling. In certain localities construction of check dams, gully plugging, torrent control, and reclamation of ravined land would also be required. Diversion channels and spillways will have to be constructed to control drainage and to divert excess water out of natural channels. In addition, farmers will have to be educated properly to use modern technology, improved seed varieties and better land management practices (Gorrie, 1966).
Planting of Fruit Trees
Forest trees usually take a long time to mature. Local poor people are impatient and want early returns. The experience in Pakistan has shown that planting of fruit trees in catchment areas is preferred to forest trees. Since the purpose is to provide a cover and to improve the economic conditions of local people, there is no harm if fruit trees which can grow in those particular localities are provided free of cost or at subsidized rates.
Commercial Energy Supplies
Watershed inhabitants are totally dependent on locally available trees and shrubs for
their cooking and heating requirements. For this, they collect leaves, lop branches, cut
the entire tree and even take out the roots. The result is that trees have either totally
disappeared or have been lopped so heavily that they are not longer growing. They meet
their fodder requirements from broadleaved species such as oaks, poplars, willows, etc.
without caring whether the trees live or die. If kerosene oil, gas cylinders, cooking
stoves and electricity are supplied to them at subsidized rates, the cutting of trees for
fuel can be reduced considerably. Since there are large numbers of perennial streams and
rivers running through the watersheds, small scale hydroelectric power development can
play a very important role. Harnessing of solar energy presents yet another possible
alternative.
Administrative Approaches
Integrated Planning
Major watersheds combine a variety of natural and human resource potentials but at the same time suffer from constraints of clashing interests at all levels of decision making. Conceiving, planning and implementation is delicate, farfetching and intricate. It is imperative that while planning conservation and development of large watersheds, proposals should emanate from an integrated study of the physical, biological, social, cultural and economic information, pertaining to the people dwelling in watershed areas.
Management of Projects
It is impracticable for all the government agencies concerned to investigate, plan and develop a watershed management programme simultaneously. Adequate coordination of effort under a single authority would be more appropriate.
Training and Education
Inhabitants of upland areas usually do not have the required knowhow for conceiving, planning and implementing a watershed management programme. It would be appropriate to set up vocational training centres in suitable localities. Side by side, it would be use full to encourage the national media to project watershed management problems and solutions and also include the subject in school curricula and textbooks. Short training programmes on local projects for selected groups from watershed communities should be encouraged. Vocational level or subprofessional level training and education in soil and water conservation, extension approaches, grazing management, rural development, tree planting and agriculture are needed.
Transfer of Information and Technology
Considerable data have been collected and are available pertaining to case studies and research conducted. The exchange of information which could result in rapid application of research results on watershed management techniques, procedures, and methods, needs to be disseminated to the people in a manner so that it can be gainfully used.
Improvement in the Quality of Life in Upper Watersheds
From most of the projects implemented in watersheds involving soil and water conservation measures, the major benefits are derived largely by the people living in ' the (downstream] plains. This indicates that the mountain man does not get as many advantages and their income and standards of living are [may] not satisfactorily improved. They, therefore, require special attention for generating more income by introducing better agricultural systems and small-scale industries such as canning, fruit preservation, etc. Bee culture and silkworm rearing could be introduced. They also need help in the form of developing appropriate markets and marketing facilities for their products. in addition, there is a need to provide for primary health facilities and drinking water supplies both for people and their livestock.
The Use of Incentives
Due to the provision of conservation works such as terracing, plantations, and restricted grazing, the traditional freedom of watershed inhabitants is curbed and they become reluctant to accept offers of improvement. it would be appropriate that financial inducements are provided in the form of interest-free loans for seed, machinery, implements, fertilizers, construction of bench terraces, check-dams, formation of marketing societies, etc. The most important factor would be to involve people in the decision making processes at the local level through representatives and responsible village committees. An economic plan by which the hillman could draw his requirements of life from the plains and produce things which he could sell to purchase needed goods would be very attractive.
Setting Up of Cooperatives
Panchayat or local body (political) systems have been working in a number of countries for a long time. The functionaries of such systems and forest workers can be jointly involved in improving the system further. In Pakistan, the North-West Frontier Province has launched a pilot project involving owners of private forests in the management and administration of their lands in the catchments of Hazara Division. This has turned out to be a very bold and successful venture for proper management and utilization of resources bringing prosperity to the upland dwellers (Ayyaz, 1983).
Blending Silviculture with Exploitation
In certain countries like Pakistan and India, some forests became over-mature because difficult access prevented them from being exploited. With the opening up of the Himalayas, exploitation, conversion, and transportation have become easy. Clearfelling on precipitous slopes is occurring with the pious hope of regenerating the area artificially. Some have overlooked the fact that site conditions have deteriorated over a period of time, a situation aggravated further by hasty and indiscreet logging operations. Due to biotic, edaphic and climatic factors it would be very difficult to successfully regenerate such areas. It is imperative that the fragile ecosystems are not given a shock treatment but are exploited with caution, employing fully the appropriate silvicultural systems with an eye on perpetuation of the resource.
Brechtel (1983) studied management problems in temperate forests and highlighted the importance of regulating logging operations. He is of the view that the current state and methods of logging are having a very serious impact on soil conservation and water regulation especially from snowme lt. As the canopy is opened, grazing is intensified curbing all natural regeneration, disturbing the soil and humus, and accelerating snowme lt. carrying away thin layers of mineral soil and accumulating large quantities of debris in the torrent beds and downstream. Infiltration capacities are reduced and exposed soils dry in the intense sunlight. Unsuccessful regeneration has been observed especially on southern slopes.
Research Requirements
The major research areas inviting attention involve study of the requirements of man living in the watersheds, improvement of pastures and collection of information on hydrological processes.
Socio-economic Conditions of the People
The main components of the ecosystem in watersheds are people, livestock, vegetation, soil and water. However, man is the most important component. Studies have to be initiated to motivate him to respond to and adjust himself to the suggested changes. How can he be persuaded to adopt the successful practices demonstrated in pilot projects? Detailed studies are needed of human communities dwelling in watersheds, particularly communities subjected to poverty, living on unproductive land. Why and how people live in such discomfort when better situations are available needs to be understood. It is indeed an inexplicable phenomenon. How can we make them our allies? To understand and develop an acceptable and practical solution, joint research efforts are needed by interdisciplinary teams which include foresters, agriculturists, economists, sociologists, and anthropologists.
Grazing Management Studies
Pasture lands will have to be surveyed to determine grazing capacities and the kind of animals that can be supported with minimum damage to the resource. The effects of different grazing intensities must also be researched. Similarly, the potential for improvement of watershed cover and composition of rangelands through reseeding, planting of fodder trees, fertilization, and soil conservation practices need research. Studies on continuous, deferred and rotational grazing, rate of grazing, weight gains, forage production, forage quality, animal nutrition, plant breeding, etc., are also needed.
Hydrological Information
Specific hydrological information is not available for most areas. Establishment of hydrological study areas both for research and demonstration is essential to guage runoff patterns and erosion rates. In addition, studies of infiltration and percolation rates are needed. The hydrological role of forests and rangelands would be better understood by collecting information such as the extent to which forests influence total water yield, streamflow regimen, and water quality. Also questions concerning the possibilities of increasing water yield of forested catchments by silvicultural means and subsequent effects on timber yield or other benefits (outputs) need to be addressed.
Conduct and Dissemination of Research
It has been observed that in certain countries a number of institutions/organizations are conducting or duplicating research without any coordination. There is no proper communication and the results do not reach the end user. The foremost step is to build up a group of competent and knowledgeable people. They would be able to identify problems, set goals for research activities, design strategy and suggest appropriate mechanisms. The problem can be solved only through an improved system of research management under competent leadership.
General
Development of Regional Cooperative Programs
Afro-Asian countries can cooperate among themselves to practice scientific management of over-grazed and misused rangelands in watersheds. This can be done through mutual consultation (networking), exchange of information on success stories, joint surveys and planning. To achieve these objectives a mobile team of scientists of related disciplines can be stationed in one of the regional countries. If need be, help in the form of extraregional expertise and finances could be mobilized to strengthen the regional effort.
Creation of Public Awareness of the Problem
Although mountain people can see that the ground on which they live is gradually slipping from under their feet (land-slips, landslides, disappearance of once fertile agricultural land, scarce vegetation even becoming scarcer), they seldom bother to look at the future. The inhabitants have to be made to believe that proper management of the land and resources is essential not only for their survival but also for posterity. Since, generally speaking, people do not accept the advice given by a Government employee, the institution of a mosque, a temple or a church may be used to convince them. Intensely religious as these people are, they could be better convinced by the preachings of a "mullah" 5 a "guru" 6 or a bishop. Most important is how to win friends and persuade people to listen to a constructive point of view. How it is achieved is immaterial. Individuals must be convinced to the point that they become extension workers pleading the cause of proper land management where they live.
5 Mullah: the man who leads prayers in a mosque.
6 Guru: holy man in the temples.
The following general picture emerges from the foregoing:
i) Most people inhabiting watershed areas are surviving just at the subsistence level due to limited resources, and are gradually getting further impoverished due to overgrazing, removal of vegetation, fires and cultivation on steep slopes. They cannot improve their lot because they are uneducated, do not possess many skills and do not have enough money to invest. They are nevertheless sticking to their meagre holdings primarily due to sentimental [cultural] reasons and thus refuse to out-migrate. Human and cattle populations are on the increase. As they are cultivating steep slopes using medieval technology, without any modern inputs, they continue to get minimal returns. But in the process they are destroying the existing land base, are carving out new agricultural land by removing trees, and accelerating soil disturbance and sedimentation. This results in reduced life of costly reservoirs, being choked with silt, sand and debris, and rises in river bed levels which aggravates flash flood damages, causing havoc to infrastructures, and destroying crops and fertile agricultural land.
ii) Even with all the available technology such as pasture improvement, stall feeding, afforestation, check-damming, gully plugging, river training, contour terracing, commercial energy supplies, improved agricultural technology, etc., man still remains the most important component of the entire watershed system. No projects, small or large, will achieve desired results unless efforts are made to involve the local people mentally and physically. A vivid perception of the problem has to be created in the mind of the people living in such vulnerable areas. The answer lies in motivation, education, provision of incentives, organization and removal of bottlenecks through an integrated approach. The key to success is to persuade people to use their livestock and land in a way that their productivity is improved. As long as mountain people remain dissatisfied, disillusioned and sceptic, no significant improvement in the existing situation should be expected.
iii) Scientists and administrators must realize that they are faced with a time limit to save the situation. it is now time to come out of the pilot projects phase. All the experimentation, cast studies and evaluation reports affirm that the job is possible as well as productive. As techniques for proper management of watersheds are being learned and perfected, large scale dissemination and adoption by the common man is essential. It is not possible for any government to continue spending large sums of money in a particular area in preference to scores of such devastated sites requiring treatment. With the help of the communities living there and by inducing a spirit of self help, well-planned programmes expanding current efforts are a must so watersheds can be rehabilitated within a reasonable time.
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