by
H.R. Rabanal
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome
Genetic management of different species of fishes found useful in fish culture is a relatively recent innovation. Recent accomplishments in this field are very indicative that this factor can contribute towards increasing the production of pond-raised fish.
For example, superior strains of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) (which are being used for pond culture) have been developed independently in Europe, (Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, U.S.S.R., Yugoslavia, etc.), Israel and the Far East (China, Indonesia, Japan). An improved breed of trout is being used in commercial fish farms in Denmark; likewise in the northwest coast of the United States selection of migratory trout for fast growing and earlier maturing strain has been successful. In the U.S.S.R. hybrid from sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus) and beluga (Huso huso) are faster growing than their parents and more adaptable for pond raising. Monosex hybrid (all males) was produced by crossing the strain of female Tilapia mossambica with the male of T. hornorum. This can be used to correct the overcrowding and subsequent stunting when raised in ponds. Within recent years the problem of providing a continued supply of fish seedlings for cultivable Chinese and Indian cyprinids has been solved by induced breeding of these species through hormone injection.
Information and published papers on the status of fish breeding programmes are very scarce and scattered. The present situation in this field may be deduced from a survey which FAO has undertaken in connection with the preparation of a Directory of Fish Culture Research Institutions, based on a questionnaire circulated to different countries of the world. Initial analysis of data received is very revealing.
Approximately 300 questionnaires were sent out. Replies were received from 100 institutions from 45 countries. Twenty-four of these countries have one fish culture research institution, while 21 have more than one. Of the 100 institutions only 25 percent have active fish breeding work included in their research programmes, while 75 percent have emphasis on other aspects of fish culture with incidental or practically no work being devoted to studies on fish genetics.
Another interesting aspect of this survey is the great discrepancy in the geographical distribution of the institutions conducting fish breeding studies. Of the 25 institutions doing this work, 72 percent are located in the temperate or colder zones of the world, while only 28 percent are located in the tropics. Those with a fish breeding programme are distributed in 8 countries in Europe with 11 institutions; 5 countries in Asia and the Far East with 6 institutions, 3 countries in Africa with 3 institutions; one country in North America with 4 institutions, and one country in South America with one institution. Obviously, in a survey of this type it is impossible to contact all institutes involved in this type of work.
In spite of the limited attention given to research on fish breeding and the definite scarcity of scientific workers in this field, present accomplishments, though based on too few institutions and countries, can be considered impressive. International cooperation can accelerate the progress that can be attained along these lines of research. The discussion that follows points to some of the avenues for this international cooperative effort which may be divided under the following categories:
FAO's survey of fish culture research institutions shows that only a few institutions are conducting this type of work. There is urgent need to support, expand and improve institutions that are now doing this kind of research. Because of the substantial progress that these institutions have already achieved, it is highly recommendable that these established institutions, if feasible, be developed as fish breeding centres. A selected number of these established centres can be developed to serve as nucleus for regional activity, or even as international centres. The need for this development is especially acute in certain regions of the world, such as South America, Africa, Asia and the Far East. Institutions selected and developed as international or regional fish breeding centres should be supported by beneficient countries or other appropriate outside sources, and should serve countries of the regions where they are established.
Achievements attained in this field of research have been the result of work by different institutions operating quite independently. It is apparent that there has been very limited exchange of information, as indicated by the relative scarcity of published material. The position is further aggravated by lack of a common language medium. Published papers from one country very often cannot be used in others where the language of the former is not easily understood. Consequently there is a great need to facilitate exchange of information, with a wider exchange of published material among workers, and whenever possible, abstracts of published papers should be translated in the more commonly used languages of scientific journals of worldwide circulation.
Free exchange of knowledge on the developed techniques and methods in fish breeding work should be fostered. This will avoid duplication of costly and time consuming experiments.
Superior strains of cultivated fish should be easily available to all regions of the world. Undoubtedly some kind of international exchange system needs to be developed by which certain established centres should be designated for the distribution of specific gene pools or strains.
Laboratory and field facilities are well developed in the institutions now conducting fish breeding programmes. It would be of great assistance to newly-established stations if such facilities can be made available to them. This sort of cooperation would be of value to both kinds of institutions because of the modifications in equipment and techniques that would undoubtedly arise in the course of their application at the new stations.
Climatic conditions exert a profound effect on living things, including fish. For any species, it can be generalized that there is faster growth rate and a shorter period of maturity under tropical situations than in colder latitudes. Instances have been noted where species of cultivated fish attain sexual maturity and growth of one to two kilograms in eight months to one year in the tropics, whereas it takes two to five years in a colder climate. At present most of the institutions having fish breeding programmes are located in temperate or colder regions, and possible advantages of faster growth rate and earlier maturity of cultivated species are therefore not fully utilized. Possibly, after a desirable strain has been propagated in an established station in a colder climate, testing and evaluation of the performance of this strain can be made in an established centre in a tropical situation. The effects of environmental selection on the genotype of the strain in question need to be studied in order to determine if such a plan is feasible.
In September 1967, under the sponsorship of FAO, plant and forestry scientists held a conference for the conservation of genetic resources of economic plant species and useful forest trees. Scientists in that conference came to the unanimous conclusion that man, in attempting to develop strains of plants to suit his needs, is rapidly minimimizing the genetic variability of such flora, resulting in the possibility of future inbred and weakened strains. This was viewed with great alarm and the conference agreed to write and call attention of national policy makers to the need of preservation of wildlife habitats, thereby keeping economic species free from human interference. It was suggested that these areas be designated as refuges for the wild types, thus permitting man a chance to strengthen the eroded inbred strains which he has developed.
Along this line of thinking, attention should also be focused on certain species of fishes subjected to intensive genetic modification in breeding work. The common carp can probably be cited as an example since this species has been so intensively cultivated for a long period of time. For the same reason that plant and forestry scientists insisted that wild types be preserved, fishery scientists should also insist that wild types of cultivated fishes be preserved.
Perhaps of greater significance in this work are the now very valuable cultivated cyprinid species in Asia - the silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix; bighead, Aristichthys nobilis; grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella; catla, Catla catla; rohu Labeo rohita and mrigal, Cirrhina mrigala; and the North American channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. These species are becoming the major cultivated species of world-wide significance and therefore there is need to protect their wild types. This can be done by conserving and preventing the destruction and modification of the original wild habitats of these species. With the growing industrial development of different countries it is possible that some of the natural waters from which these species originate may be subjected to major modifications resulting in great harm. The natural breeding areas of the silver, bighead and grass carps are in the West and Yangtze Rivers in China; the catla, rohu and mrigal breed in the rivers of East Pakistan and northern and eastern India. These species need to be protected. Scientists in these countries should be quick to point out these dangers to national policy makers.
Another point to be noted is the possibility that certain hybrids may be detrimental to their parent species genotypes. Adoption of appropriate rules and safeguards pertaining to fish introduction should be formulated and implemented. Policies along this line may vary from one country to another, perhaps due to differences in emphasis on the national objectives, but a general rule may be adopted for this work, based on the results of scientific studies.
With greater freedom of exchange of newly developed superior strains of cultivated species we run into certain risks and dangers unless proper precautions are taken in this process. Such exchange can easily become the means by which diseases and parasites of fishes can be spread in areas where they were previously unknown. Likewise, seeds of obnoxious weeds may be transferred from country to country in the same manner. There is, therefore, a great need for strict prophylactic measures to prevent the occurrence of harmful effects. Neither the country of origin, nor the recipient country, can bear full responsibility for this occurrence, but it will probably be of mutual advantage if both collaborate in instituting the appropriate safeguards.
In the FAO World Symposium on Warm-water Pond Fish Culture held in Rome in May 1966, definite and well-intentioned recommendations along these lines were emphasized in Recommendations 12 and 13 of that Symposium. Recommendation 12 calls for the establishment of a central registry of fish introductions, while Recommendation 13 deals with the survey of laws relating to international exchange of fishes. The objectives of these recommendations are quite obvious - namely, to identify and trace movements of fish stocks and to follow up future usefulness or harm resulting from such movement, and to effect sanitary control of international traffic in live fish. Closely-knit international cooperation is essential for successful implementation of these recommendations. A study is now in progress by FAO of measures used by national governments for control of import, export and internal traffic of live fish and fish eggs.
It is becoming clear that the characteristics of the original wild variety are gradually being lost through continued selective breeding (for example, the common carp). For a better understanding of the genetic changes that may have taken place, and to guide future action on specific strains, it will be necessary to designate one particular strain of the species, preferably the original wild variety, as the ‘type’ strain for that species. Henceforth, the races or hybrids that can be developed from this species can be described and catalogued for world-wide information and used by fish culturists and other scientific workers. It has been suggested that a system of designating strains and stocks by code numbers should be initiated to facilitate identification.
Since this highly useful work must be carried out by competent and experienced institutions, its accomplishment can only be achieved by collaboration among scientists from established fish breeding centres. Exchange of information on developments at these centres is therefore very essential.
This Seminar should be the start of greater international collaboration in fish breeding research. If found feasible, it is envisaged that papers presented at this Seminar will be processed and arranged to serve as a preliminary manual on this subject. It is suggested that the programmes outlined here should then be tried in as many places in the world as possible. Then at some convenient time in the future a worldwide meeting on this subject may be arranged to discuss the results obtained.
To solve the problem of the acute lack of trained personnel for fish breeding work it will be necessary to establish international or regional training centres. An appropriate programme of training should be worked out and training facilities should be established, preferably utilizing the existing centres as nucleus for this training. It would be desirable for countries in a region to pool their resources in order to establish such centres. External assistance from appropriate sources can then be sought and would have greater chances of approval. Once established, training programmes for a specified level of training could be scheduled at regular intervals.
FAO is one of the specialized agencies within the United Nations family of organizations. It started in 1945 with 39 founder members; its present membership is 121. The primary role of FAO is to give assistance to member countries in their problems of food and agriculture, including fisheries and forestry. To perform this function, FAO undertakes the following specific activities:
From its inception, FAO has served as the organizing and coordinating agency which brings together representatives of governments and scientific bodies to review and exchange information, to study problems of common interest and plan action programmes within the whole range of food and agriculture, including nutrition, forestry and fisheries. The activity conducted in response to this assignment of duties and responsibilities is known as FAO's Regular Programme. This Programme is financed directly by annual contributions by Member Nations of amounts in accordance with the established United Nations scale of assessments.
To enhance its effectiveness and expand its activities to meet the growing demand of member countries, FAO acts as an executing or participating agency for other world bodies. It is a participating agency in the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the activities of which are dispensed under two distinct channels, namely: (i) Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance (EPTA), and (ii) Special Fund (SF). Established earlier, in 1950, the EPTA provides for individual FAO experts, fellowships for study abroad, seminars and training centres. The SF was established in 1960 to provide for a more realistic redirection of UN assistance to developing countries. It is concerned with long-term training institutions and demonstration projects; large-scale surveys of natural resources coupled with preinvestment and feasibility studies; and applied institutions and pilot projects.
The FFHC is directed to people rather than to governments, to bring about their involvement in solving the many problems which are the causes of hunger. National FFHC committees, private organizations and individuals may deposit funds with FAO to implement selected field projects in developing countries. From the beginning of the campaign in 1960 to 1967, FAO has received 650 requests for FFHC field projects; 248 projects have been completed, or are operational, out of funds from international donations or pledges.
The WFP, a joint activity of the United Nations and FAO, uses food and foodstuffs pledged by United Nations Member Governments to assist economic and social development projects and for emergency relief. Established in 1963 and started on pledges valued at $90 million from 70 Member Nations it had, by 1967, operated or completed 229 development projects in 61 countries valued at U.S.$205 million.
FAO also cooperates with other specialized agencies of the United Nations family in various fields of activity, such as:
Knowing the general structure and functions of FAO, a description should be made on how a field assistance project can properly be developed. First of all, Member Nations have their respective economic development programmes, and relative magnitude of efforts and funds and priorities are set by each. When a Member Nation feels the need for assistance on problems involving food and agriculture, including fisheries and forestry, this can be brought up through the field contact agencies of FAO, namely the UNDP Resident Representative or through the FAO Country Representative, if present in the country. It is important in this instance that the Member Government expressly indicates its interest for assistance and that the field of assistance asked for is among the priority projects in the country. This is important because each country is generally allowed only a limited number of FAO projects at any particular time.
The UNDP Resident Representative or FAO Country Representative assists the Member Government in drafting the request for the project and after a series of consultations with FAO and the governing body of the assisting agency (UNDP, FFHC, WFP, etc.) the project may be written in final form and submitted for approval. Upon approval by all concerned, the funds are set aside and the project can be made operational.
The machinery of FAO assistance programme can be utilized to promote international fish breeding programmes. FAO, upon request of Member Nations, can organize seminars or training programmes on a regional basis. International meetings on this subject may also be organized in the future if Member Nations express their desire to this effect.
To disseminate trends and recent information on studies in this field, FAO has started to issue a new quarterly newsletter, the FAO Fish Culture Bulletin1 A Directory of Fish Culture Research Institutions will also be circulated, containing information on institutions that are actively carrying out fish breeding programmes. In order to make all existing material on fish breeding available, it is hoped that information will be freely given by all concerned on the subject.
1 Now renamed FAO Aquaculture Bulletin
