Abramis brama (Linnaeus)1
Bream. (Cyprinidae). Fresh and brackish waters of Europe, off the northwestern part of Asia Minor and in the drainage areas of Caspian and Aral Seas. Introduced in Siberian waters, some lakes of Finland, Poland and Rumania. Artificial propagation in U.S.S.R. Tolerates wide range of salinity. Semi-migratory. Food: detritus, sand and mud particles making up 80–90 percent. Breeds in ponds. Fecundity highly variable. Live eggs and juveniles transported over long distances in U.S.S.R.
Acipenser baeri Brandt
Siberian sturgeon. (Acipenseridae). Rivers of Siberia. Experimental cultivation in Japan ponds; fry imported from Russia are reported to have reached 3–5 kg. Food: larvae of caddis fly, mayfly, black fly and chironomids, carps, burbots, beetles, molluscs, etc. Spawns only once every few years. Fecundity: 174 000–420 000. Slow growth.
Acipenser güldenstaedti Brandt
Russian sturgeon. (Acipenseridae). Basins of Sea of Azov and Caspian Sea. Artificial propagation in U.S.S.R. Generally an anadromous fish. Young feed on benthic invertebrates. Adults feed on amphipods, Cumacea, mysids, chironomids, bullheads, etc. Feeding most intensive during summer. The species has a very fast rate of growth; maximum length: 2.35 m; age: 50–60 years. Becomes mature in 10–20 years.
Acipenser ruthenus Linnaeus2
Sterlet. (Acipenseridae). Rivers in the basins of the Black, Caspian and Baltic seas; basin of the northern Dvina, Arctic Ocean. Introduced to other areas. Cultivated in Rumania. Freshwater fish which migrates upstream for spawning. Insectivore; does not feed in winter. Males mature at 4–5 years and females at 5–9 years. Spawns only once every two or three years. Fecundity: 11 000–137 600. Two races: a European and a Siberian.
Acipenser stellatus pallas
Starred sturgeon. (Acipenseridae). Basins of Black Sea, Sea of Azov and Caspian Sea. Anadromous fish which enters rivers for spawning. Artificial propagation in U.S.S.R. Larvae feed on chironomids and crustaceans. Adult food: mainly invertebrates. Spawns at an interval of 3–4 years. Males mature in 9–13 years and females in 12–17 years. Fecundity: 20 000–362 000. Maximum size: 220 cm and 68 kg. Maximum age: 30 years.
Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis (McClelland)
Copper Mahseer. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of northeast India and Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, Malay Archipelago, Thailand, etc. Cultivated in India. Esteemed game fish. Omnivorous feeder. Growth to 15–30 cm and 110 g reported in one year. Attains 60 cm or more in length. Breeds in ponds with running water.
Aegeniosus brevifilis Valenciennes
Mandube. (Siluridae). Fresh waters of South America. Cultivated in ponds in Ceará. Propagation by hypophysation. Larvae extremely cannibalistic. Beneficial in tilapia control.
Alestes imberi Peters
(Characidae). Africa. Experimental culture as larvicidal fish.
Alosa finta (Cuvier)
Twaite shad. (Clupeidae). Mediterranean coasts and Atlantic coast of Europe. Experimental cultivation in Morocco. Marine fish which ascends rivers for spawning. Food: planktonic crustacea, herring larvae, insects, small snails, etc. Very sensitive to pollution.
Alosa sapidissima (Wilson)
American shad; common shad. (Clupeidae). American coast of Atlantic, Pacific coast of North America and Soviet territorial waters of the Pacific Ocean. Ascends streams to spawn, in spring. Food: in sea - chiefly plankton and occasionally young of other fish. Spawned under artificial conditions in North America and eggs and young released into open waters.
Anabas testudineus (Bloch)
Climbing perch. (Anabantidae). Tropical fresh waters of Asia and Far East. Cultivated in Vietnam. Limited culture in other countries. Temperature limits: 20–30°C. Omnivorous feeder. In ponds growth to 12 cm in one year and 20 cm in two years reported. Eggs buoyant, floating freely and yellowish or white in colour. Extensively used for stocking in uncleared waters. Able to live out of water in moist air for six days.
Anguilla anguilla (Linnaeus)
Common river eel. (Anguillidae). European coasts, Mediterranean coast of North Africa. Introduced in other areas. Cultivated in northern Adriatic Sea, fish ponds in the Po region, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Japan, etc. Marine catadromous fish. The eel reaches length of 1.5 m and 6 kg. Food: all kinds of aquatic animals and fish spawn. Farmed in brackishwater ponds, but do not breed in confined waters.
Anguilla japonica Temminck and Schlegel
Japanese eel. (Anguillidae). Japan, China, Vietnam and China (Taiwan). Cultivated in Japan and China (Taiwan). Freshwater catadromous fish. Temperature limits: 20–28°C. Carnivore. Voracious eater in ponds. Growth in one year: 30 cm and 100–200 g. Often reared in association with common carp and grey mullet. Food conversion ratio of 5.5:1, for usual foods, reported. Yields up to 15 000 kg/ha obtained in intensive culture.
Anoplopoma fimbria (Pallas)
Sablefish; black cod. (Anoplopomatidae). South California to Alaska coast. Experimental culture in U.S.A. (Gulf of Georgia). Attains length of over 90 cm. Able to stand very rough treatment and has remarkable recuperative ability. Temperature tolerance: 5–18°C. Salinity tolerance: 21–31 ppt. Grows quickly when conditions are favourable.
Aplocheilus dayi (Steindachner)
Ceylon killifish; Top minnow. (Cyprinodontidae). Sri Lanka fresh waters. Temperature requirement: 20–31°C. Hatching in 12 days at about 25°C. Cultivated as larvicidal fish.
Aplocheilus lineatum (Valenciennes)
Top minnow. (Cyprinodontidae). Fresh and brackish waters of India and Sri Lanka. Breeds at about 8 cm length. Temperature requirement: 20–31°C. Well known larvicidal fish, attaining 10 cm length.
Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton)
Blue panchax; top minnow. (Cyprinodontidae). Fresh and brackish waters of India, Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Malay Archipelago, Thailand, etc. Extensive cultivation in Indonesia as larvicidal fish. Breeds at 8 cm, and attains 9 cm length. Temperature tolerance: 21–30°C.
Aplodinotus grunniens Rafinesque
Freshwater drum. (Sciaenidae). Fresh waters of North America. Introduced into Japan for cultivation. Food: mussels, worms, small fish, crayfish and other crustaceans. Prefers quieter waters. Numerous eggs are scattered over the bottom and remain there till hatching.
Arapaima gigas Cuvier
(Arapaimidae). Tropical fresh waters of South America. Cultivated in Brazil. Grows to 4 m and 200 kg. Feeds on invertebrates. Naturally spawns in lakes. Parental care exhibited. Flesh is reported to be very tasty.
Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson)
Big head. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of south and central China; introduced into several Far East countries. Cultivated in China, Thailand, Malaysia, Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Rumania, Poland, etc. Food: phyto and zooplankton. Growth in two years: 30 cm and 900 g; and in three years: 45 cm and 1.8 kg. Rapid growing fish giving production up to 1 000 kg/ha in manured ponds. Successfully induced to breed by hypophysation.
Astatoreochromis alluaudi Pellegrin
Syn. Haplochromis alluaudi (Boulenger)
(Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Africa. Cultivated in Cameroon, Congo, Kenya and Uganda for bilharzia control as the fish is mallacophagous. Reduction of snails in ponds by 64–96 percent has been obtained. Grows to 16 cm length.
Astronotus ocellatus (Agissiz in Spix)
‘Apairi’. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of South America. Extensively used for culture in Brazil. Naturally spawns in lakes.
Astyanax mexicanus Filippi
Syn. A. fasciatus mexicanus (?)
Banded tetra. (Characinidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in U.S.A. ponds.
Atherinichthys bonariensis (Cuvier & Valenciennes)
Pejerrey. (Atherinidae). Cultivated in Morocco, Argentina and Brazil.
Auchenoglanis occidentalis Boulenger
(Bagridae). Africa. Omnivorous with predatory tendency. Sexual maturity at age of two years. Mixed culture with tilapia.
Bagrus bayad Forskål
‘Valefo’. (Bagridae). Fresh waters of North Africa. Cultivated in Ghana. Bottom feeder, consuming plants and fish (prawns in deeper waters and fin-fish in shallow areas). Molluscs and insect larvae are also consumed. Does not often breed in small ponds, but breeds well in reservoirs.
Bagrus docmac (Forskål)
‘Valefo’. (Bagridae). Fresh waters of Africa. Cultivated in Ghana. Main food: fish eggs, fry, adult fish, molluscs and insect larvae. Does not breed in ponds; breeds well in large reservoirs. Juveniles are known to live and feed among exposed rocks and disperse to the open waters later. In rivers, change from insectivorous to piscivorous habit is observed from 20 cm length onward. In Lake Victoria the fish is reported to depend entirely on Haplochromis for its food, from 15 cm length onward.
Barbus aureus (Cope)
Barbel. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of Umvoti, Natal, etc. (Africa). Propagated in South Africa for stocking rivers. Attains length of 20 cm.
Barbus caudovittatus Boulenger
Barbel. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of Ubanghi, Africa. Experimental cultivation in Leopoldville, Zaire. Attains length of 9 cm. Does not spawn in ponds.
Barbus grypus Heckel
Barbel. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of Euphrates and Tigris. Experimental cultivation in Republic of Iraq, separately or in combination with common carp. Herbivorous fish.
Barbus holubi Steindachner
Small-mouth yellowfish. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of South Africa. Propagated for introduction into lakes. Reported to have bred and established in Lake Kyle, Rhodesia.
Barbus luteus Heckel
Barbel. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of Orontes, Euphrates and Khaboin rivers. Experimental cultivation in Republic of Iraq, separately or in combination with common carp. Breeds in May-June. Herbivorous fish.
Barbus occidentalis Boulenger
Barbel. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of Lagos: Ogun river, Upper Niger, etc. Experimental cultivation in Nigeria. Attains length of 8 cm.
Barbus paludinosus Peters
Barbel. (Cyprinidae). Africa. Experimental culture as larvicidal fish.
Barbus spharpeyi Günther
Barbel. (Cyprinidae). Euphrates river. Experimental cultivation in Republic of Iraq, separately or in combination with common carp.
Barbus trimaculatus Peters
Barbel. (Cyprinidae). Africa. Experimental culture as larvicidal fish.
Barbus xanthopterus (Heckel)
Barbel. (Cyprinidae). Euphrates river. Experimental cultivation in Republic of Iraq, separately or in combination with common carp.
Brycon guatemalensis (Günther)
‘Sabalo’. (Characinidae). Cultivated in Guatemala. 3–159 kg/ha/year from ponds reported.
Brycon henni Eigenmann
Sabaleta. (Characidae). Fresh waters of South America. Experimental culture in ponds in Colombia.
Caranx delicatissimus (Döderlein)
Striped jack; shimaaji. (Carangidae). Coast of middle Japan and southward. Spawns in June and July. Most expensive food fish among the carangids. Experimental culture in Japan.
Carassius auratus (Linnaeus)
Goldfish; silver crucian carp. (Cyprinidae). Widely distributed. Cultivated in China, Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia, Hong Kong, France, Rumania, U.S.S.R., Thailand, India, Pakistan, etc. Generally grown in tropical waters between 200 and 1 000 m above sea level. Omnivorous feeder, preferring lower water plants and small insect larvae. The fish spawns in captivity. In most cases goldfish is propagated for aquaria and as forage fish. In manured ponds the average production has been estimated to be 400 kg/ha.
Carassius auratus gibelio (Bloch)
European goldfish. (Cyprinidae). Artificially propagated in U.S.S.R. hatcheries.
Carassius carassius (Linnaeus)
Crucian carp; English carp; golden carp. (Cyprinidae). Temperate waters of Europe. Freshwater fish, introduced in many countries. Cultivated in Europe, Japan, India, North Borneo, China, Indonesia, China (Taiwan), Rumania, etc. Plankton and detritus feeder. Breeds when 10–13 cm long. Fecundity: 300 000. Incubation period: 5–7 days. Breeds in confined waters. Suitable for culture in paddy fields. Average growth reported to be 20–25 cm in one year in tropical waters and 10 cm in one year in temperate regions.
Catla catla (Hamilton)
Catla. (Cyprinidae). Tropical fresh waters of India, Pakistan and Burma. Introduced in many countries. Cultivated in India, Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Israel, Malaysia, Japan, etc. Able to tolerate slightly brackish water. Plankton feeder. A fast growing fish attaining 38–45 cm and 900 g in one year and 4–5 kg in two years. Annual production in fertile ponds estimated to be 1 100–2 200 kg/ha. Eggs spherical and transparent, 2 mm in diameter, increasing to 4–5 mm when hydrated. Hatching takes place in 16–18 hours. Artificial propagation by hypophysation very successful in India.
Catostomus commersonii (Lacépède)
White sucker. (Catostomidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in North America. Prefers clear water. Food: aquatic plants, insects, worms and molluscs. Average growth estimated to be 6 cm, 10 cm, 14 cm, 18 cm, 20 cm, and 25 cm, in the first six years respectively. Upstream migration for spawning, with general preference to shallow waters. Eggs normally buried in loose gravel. Fecundity: 22 000–100 000. Eggs stripped and hatched in jars. Fry are stocked in fertilized ponds and reared to marketable size without supplementary feeding. The fish is used as bait for Esox lucius.
Centropomus parallelus Poey
Camurim. (Centropomidae). South America. Cultivated in brackishwater ponds in Brazil. Carnivorous.
Centropomus undecimalis Bloch
Camurim. (Centropomidae). South America. Cultivated in brackishwater ponds in Brazil. Predatory fish.
Chalcalburnus chalcoides Güldenstaedt
Shemaia. (Cyprinidae). Basins of the Black Sea, Sea of Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas. Cultivated in middle and southern states of U.S.S.R. Artificial spawning in hatcheries. Plankton feeder. Very sensitive to purity of water. When water is turbid spawning is halted and eggs and larvae die. Existence of ‘homing instinct’ indicated. A number of subspecies determined.
Chanos chanos (Forskål)
Milkfish. (Chanidae). Indo-Pacific seas. Cultivated in Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, China (Taiwan), Hawaii, Burma, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, etc. Able to tolerate wide ranges in salinity and even fresh water. Temperature tolerance: 15–40°C. Herbivorous, but may consume smaller quantities of animal matter. Average growth estimated to be 5–7 cm in one month, 12–15 cm in two months and 40 cm and 450 g in one year. Production in brackish waters reported to be up to about 2 000 kg/ha. Spawns in the sea near the coast. Eggs pelagic, about 12 mm in diameter. A fish of commercial importance in the development of coastal aquaculture.
Chirostoma estor Jordan
‘Pescado Blanco’. (Atherinidae). South America and Mexico. Cultivated in Mexico for restocking purposes.
Chirostoma grandocule Steindachner
Charal. (Atherinidae). South America and Mexico. Cultivated in freshwater ponds.
Chirostoma bartoni Jordan & Evermann
Charal. (Atherinidae). South America and Mexico. Cultivated in freshwater ponds.
Chrysichthys longibarbis Boulenger
(Bagridae). Africa. Experimental culture. Survival rate and growth have been poor.
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus (Lacépède)
(Bagridae). Upper Niger, Gold Coast, Cameroon. Cultivated in Ghana. Can live both in lagoons and fresh waters. Bottom feeder, the common food items being molluscs and prawns. Do not generally breed in ponds.
Chrysichthys walkeri Günther
(Bagridae). Portuguese Guinea; Sierra Leone to Ogowe. Cultivated in Ghana. Other details same as C. nigrodigitatus.
Chrysophrys major (Temminck & Schlegel)
‘Genuin porgy’; madai. (Sparidae). Shore fish in Japan, South Korea, Formosa and in East and South China Seas. Extensive and experimental cultivation in Japan and Korea respectively. Carnivorous. Spawning migration to shallow waters in April and May. Sexually mature at three years.
Cichla ocellaris Bloch & Schneider
‘Tucunare commun’. (Cichlidae). South America. Cultivated in Brazil. Carnivorous. Naturally spawns in lakes. Spawning is preceded by long courtship.
Cichla tamensis Gumboldt
‘Tucunare pinima’. (Cichlidae). South America. Artificial propagation and extensive cultivation reported from Brazil. Naturally spawns in lakes. Predatory fish.
Cichlasoma dovii (Günther)
‘El Lagunero’. (Cichlidae). Amazon region. Cultivation in ponds. Benthophagic species. Digs nest-holes in the bottom of ponds for depositing the eggs, which the parents guard.
Cichlasoma festivum Heckel
Vieja. (Cichlidae). South America. Grown in natural ponds (‘chameras’) which are temporarily flooded by rivers.
Cichlasoma guttulatum (Günther)
‘Mojarra azul’. (Cichlidae). Amazon region. Cultivated in Guatemala ponds. Benthophagic. Digs nest-holes in the bottom of ponds. Maximum production reported from ponds: 107 kg/ha/year.
Cichlasoma macracanthus (Günther)
‘Mojarra negra’. (Cichlidae). Amazon region. Cultivated in Guatemala ponds. Other details same as C. guttulatum.
Cichlasoma managüense (Günther)
‘Guapote tigre’. (Cichlidae). Amazon region. Cultivated in Guatemala ponds. Other details same as C. guttulatum; with a reported maximum production of 186 kg/ha/year from ponds.
Cichlasoma motagüense (Günther)
‘Istatagua’. (Cichlidae). Amazon region. Cultivated in Guatemala ponds. Production from ponds: 45–239 kg/ha/year. Other details same as C. guttulatum.
Cirrhina cirrhosa (Bloch)
White carp. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of south India. Cultivated in south Indian ponds. Hardy fish growing to 25–30 cm and 330 g in one year and 61 cm in two years. Plankton feeder, which also browses on algae in marginal areas. Sexually mature when 20–25 cm long. Does not breed in ponds.
Cirrhina molitorella (Cuvier & Valenciennes)
Mud carp. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of south and central China; introduced in Thailand, Malaysia and other countries. Cultivated with other species in China, China (Taiwan), Thailand, Malaysia, Japan and Hong Kong. Serves as scavenger in ponds. Omnivorous feeder. Grows to 3–8 cm and 25–75 g in one year, 25 cm and 300 g in two years and 30 cm and 600 g in three years. Maximum weight: about 900 g. Does not breed in ponds.
Cirrhina mrigala (Hamilton)
‘Mrigal’. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of India, Pakistan and Burma. Cultivated in India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Japan, etc. Bottom feeder; omnivore. Grows to 24 cm and 340 g in 6 months and 45–61 cm and 1–2 kg in one year. The average growth in ponds has been estimated to be 38–41 cm in one year. Does not breed in ponds. Induced breeding by hypophysation has been very successful in India.
Cirrhina reba (Hamilton)
‘Reba’. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of India and Pakistan. Cultivated in ponds in India. Plankton and detritus feeder. Growth fairly rapid. Grows to about 30 cm in natural waters. Does not breed in ponds. Induced breeding by hypophysation successful in India.
Citharidium ansorgei Boulenger
(Citharinidae). Fresh waters of Africa. Cultivated in Nigeria. Detritus feeder. Does not spawn in ponds.
Citharinus citharus (Geoffroy)
Moonfish. (Citharinidae). Fresh waters of tropical central Africa. Cultivated in Congo and Nigeria. Detritus feeder. Does not spawn in ponds. Spawns in swamps during August-September. Grows to 10–13 cm in two months and 20–30 cm in one year.
Citharinus congicus Boulenger
(Citharinidae). Fresh waters of Upper Congo. Cultivated in Congo. Detritus feeder. Does not breed in ponds. Grows to 50 cm.
Citharinus gibbosus Boulenger
(Citharinidae). Fresh waters of Africa. Cultivated in Congo. Detritus feeder. Does not breed in ponds.
Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus)
Catfish. (Claridae). Freshwaters of Indo-Pacific region. Cultivated in India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Khmer, etc. Cage culture in Thailand. Able to tolerate slightly brackish waters. Food: worms, insects, shrimps and decayed animal matter. Grows to about 20 cm in one year. Spawns in ponds. Parental care exhibited in ponds. Generally considered as extraneous fish in ponds and rice fields in some of the countries.
Clarias lazera Cuvier & Valenciennes
(Claridae). Africa. Mixed culture with tilapia as well as monoculture. Growth rate very fast. Omnivorous. Sexual maturity in 10 months.
Clarias macrocephalus Günther
Catfish. (Claridae). Cultivated in Thailand freshwater ponds. Considered to be highly delicious. Fry feed on zooplankton; adults on: worms, insects, shrimps, etc. Breeds during rainy season in paddy fields. Induced to breed by hypophysation. Optimum stocking rate: 50 fingerlings (7–10 cm) per m2. Average growth reported to be about 40 g/month when fed with animal offal mixed with rice and vegetables. Harvestable length of 25 cm attained in 4–5 months.
Clupea harengus Linnaeus
Oceanic herring. (Clupeidae). Boreal and sub-tropical waters of the northern parts of Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Experimental rearing of larvae up to the stage after metamorphosis, in German and Norwegian coasts. Marine, pelagic, shoal fish, which reaches a maximum length of 50 cm.
Clupea pallasi Valenciennes
Pacific herring. (Clupeidae). Pacific Ocean; Asiatic coast from Korea to Lena estuary in U.S.S.R. and American coast. Experimental rearing of larvae up to 40 days, with survival of 14 percent reported from North America.
Coregonus albula (Linnaeus)
Ripus; Baltic or European Cisco, Lake whitefish. (Coregonidae). Marine, brackish and fresh waters from Ireland to basin of Baltic Sea (U.S.S.R.) and Volga Basin. Artificial propagation in U.S.S.R. Plankton feeder, the food items being mainly crustaceans. Feeds intensively during summer. Grows up to 46 cm length.
Coregonus clupeaformis (Mitchill)
Lake whitefish. (Coregonidae). Fresh waters of North America. Artificial propagation in U.S.A. and Canada. Food: plankton, aquatic insect larvae, bottom organisms and occassionally small fish. Spawning in November-December, the female scattering the eggs over rocky or sandy areas. Spawners three or more years old. Fecundity: 10 000–75 000 or more. Stocking of fry in many continent waters not successful.
Coregonus lavaretus (Linnaeus)
Common whitefish. (Coregonidae). Migratory river fish, from Switzerland to Kolyma river in U.S.S.R. Cultivated in U.S.S.R. Many sub-species determined in U.S.S.R. (C. lavaretus baeri Kessler, C. lavaretus pidschian (Gmelin), C. lavaretus ludoga Poljakow, etc.).
Coregonus lavaretus maraena Bloch
Whitefish. (Coregonidae). Fresh waters of Europe. Cultivated in ponds, especially deep dam-valley ponds, in Czechoslovakia. Successfully propagated in cold waters. General temperature preference: about 25°C.
Coregonus nasus (Pallas)
Broad whitefish. (Coregonidae). Lake-river fish in Siberia and North America. Cultivated in northern U.S.S.R. waters. Largest of all whitefish, growing up to about 16 kg. Bottom feeder, feeding on chironomid larvae, small molluscs and benthic crustaceans. Fecundity: 34 000–134 000.
Coregonus peled (Gmelin)1
Peled; ‘Syrok’. (Coregonidae). Lake-river fish in U.S.S.R. (from Mezen river in the west to Kolyma river in the east). Cultured successfully in carp ponds in the north and Ukraine (U.S.S.R.). Attains 50 cm and 5 kg. Primarily zooplankton feeder, the important food item being pelagic crustaceans. Sexually mature in 3–5 years. Spawning takes place in river channels on gravelly or sandy ground. Temperature tolerance: 21–26°C.
Ctenopharyngodon idellus (Cuvier & Valenciennes)
Grass carp; ‘White amur’. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of China. Introduced in several countries. Cultivated in China, Japan, Russia, India, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, China (Taiwan), Burma, Hong Kong, Philippines, Singapore, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Rumania, etc. Able to tolerate slightly brackish waters. Omnivorous feeder, but adults are considered to be very useful for controlling aquatic weeds. Fry feed on: Cyclops, Diaptomus, Daphnia, etc., changing to Lemna and other aquatic weeds in later stages. General average growth: 15–30 cm and 225–650 g in one year and 60 cm and 1.8–2.3 kg in two years. Does not breed in confined waters. Induced breeding by hypophysation has been successful in many countries.
Cynoseion nebulosus (Mitchill)
‘Trout’. (Sciaenidae). North American coast. Occur along with other fishes in earthen brackishwater ponds in South Carolina, U.S.A. Marine fish which can tolerate brackish waters up to salinity of 20 ppt. Carnivorous fish.
Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus)2
Common carp; European carp; German carp; wild carp. (Cyprinidae). Native to China and U.S.S.R., transplanted in the middle ages to Europe and Asian countries. Cultivated in freshwater impoundments all over the world. Cage culture on commercial scale in Japan. Temperature tolerance: generally 20–25°C. Omnivore; mostly bottom feeder. Average growth to 1 kg in one year and 2 kg in two years. Production: 500–600 kg/ha in India; 1 000 kg in Indonesia; 2 000–5 000 kg in Japan. Breeds in confined waters. Eggs creamy yellow, 1.5–2 mm in diameter; adhesive. Several varieties and numerous sub-varieties have been determined.
Diapterus rhombeus Cuvier
Carapeba. (Cichlidae). South America. Cultivated in brackishwater ponds in Brazil. Grows to 15 cm.
Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus)
Syns.Morone labrax (Linnaeus) and Labrax lupus (Lacépède)
Sea bass. (Serranidae). North Adriatic Sea, Black Sea (U.S.S.R.), etc. Cultivated in marine and brackishwater ponds in the Po region and Black Sea region. Voracious eater of fish, particularly sardines. Spawning takes place in sea and estuarine waters from May to August. Does not breed in ponds.
Dicentrarchus punctatus Bloch
Syn. Morone punctata (Bloch)
Black spotted bass; bar tachete. (Serranidae). Mediterranean and coasts of Atlantic from Normandy to Senegambia. Experimental culture in France. Strict carnivore. Artificial feeds: crustaceans and molluscan juice. Grows to 36 cm.
Distichodus fasciatus Boulenger
(Citharinidae). Lake Tamlea (Africa). Cultivated in freshwater ponds in Zaire. Predatory fish; periphytophagic and detritophagic. Does not spawn in ponds.
Distichodus maculatus Boulenger
(Citharinidae). River Sankuru, Kasai (Africa). Cultivated in freshwater ponds in Congo. Other details same as D. fasciatus.
Dormitator latifrons Richardson
Chame. (Gobiidae). South America. Grown in ‘chameras’.
Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw)
Threadfin. (Polynemidae). Indo-Pacific seas. Cultivated in brackishwater impoundments in India and Pakistan. Ascends higher up the rivers than others of the family. Predatory fish, the food items being fishes, prawns, mysids, amphipods, isopods, stomatopods, and crustacean remains. Grows to average length of 19 cm in one year and 37 cm in two years. Breeding takes place in the sea, with an extended spawning period.
Elops hawaiensis Regan
Ten-pounder. (Elopidae). Seas of Java, Malaysia, China (Taiwan) and Hawaii. Extraneous fish in brackishwater ponds in Indonesia. Maximum length about 1 m. Found in seas and estuaries, but occassionally enter rivers also. Mainly planktophagic.
Elops machnata (Forskål)
Ten-pounder. (Elopidae). Red Sea, Indian Seas to China and Japan. Cultivated in brackishwater ponds of Hawaii along with milkfish, mullets and tarpon. Food: carnivorous, feeding mainly on fish and crustaceans.
Elops saurus Linnaeus
Ten-pounder. (Elopidae). Indo-Pacific seas, east coast of Africa, Red Sea, etc. Suitable for cultivation in brackish waters. Acclimatized to freshwater conditions in India. Food: small fish and crustaceans. Breeding takes place in the sea.
Epinephelus sp.
‘Rock cod’. (Epinephelidae). Tropical fish; ranges from middle of Japan southward to China Sea and Java. Experimental cultivation in Hong Kong and Singapore.
Esox lucius Linnaeus
Pike; Northern pike. (Esocidae). Fresh waters of Europe, Siberia and North America. Cultivated in Europe, U.S.S.R. and U.S.A. Experimental in Madagascar also. In Nebraska (U.S.A.) the economic feasibility of rearing the fish in small drainable ponds is under trial. Excellent sport fish. Predatory fish. Grows to more than 1.5 m and 35 kg. Fecundity: 100 000–1 000 000.
Esox masquinongy Mitchill
Muskellunge. (Esocidae). Larger freshwater bodies of North America. Cultivated in Morocco and U.S.A. Hatchery propagation reported from U.S.A. since 1890. Hatchery stocked population established in Niger creek, Ontario. Carnivorous fish, feeding on suckers, perches, minnows, etc. Sometimes cannibalistic. Prefers to lie in concealed spots, weed beds, etc. Grows to about 22 cm, 39 cm, 53 cm, 66 cm, 76 cm and 86 cm in first six years respectively. Artificial propagation by stripping.
Etroplus suratensis (Bloch)
Pearlspot; freshwater pomfret. (Cichlidae). Fresh and brackish waters along coast of India and Sri Lanka. Cultivated in Indian ponds. Advanced fry feed on aquatic insect larvae, filamentous algae and other plants; juveniles feed on zooplankton also. The adult is essentially a vegetable feeder, consuming filamentous algae, aquatic plants and phytoplankton. In ponds reported to attain 10–12 cm and 113 g in one year. Breeds naturally in ponds. Reported to become sexually mature in second year. Fecundity: 1 300–6 000. The female guards fertilized eggs.
Eutropius depressirostris Peters
(Schilbeidae). Africa. Experimental culture as larvicidal fish.
Evynnis japonica Tanaka
Crimson sea bream. (Sparidae). Japanese coast. Spawning season from September to November. Grows to about 40 cm. Experimental cultivation in Japan.
Fugu rubripes (Temminck & Schlegel)
Tiger puffer. (Tetraodontidae). Japanese coast. Extensively cultivated in Japan. Grows to 70 cm or more. Used as food in Japan; cooking is done especially in removing the ovary and blood which contain a poisonous substance called tetrodotoxin.
Gadus morhua Linnaeus
Cod. (Gadidae). North Atlantic along American and European coasts. Artificial propagation in Norway. Mature fish caught in January to February and kept in spawning ponds. When temperature is favourable, spawning takes place and the fertilized eggs concentrate on the surface and are collected once a day and transferred to special incubators containing sea water. Survival rate of larvae: up to 90 percent. Every year 100–150 million larvae are released in Oslofjord. The fish grows rapidly and span of life is about 17 years. Feeds mainly on fish fry, Euphausiidae, Hyperiidae and benthic invertebrates.
Gambusia affinis affinis (Baird & Girard)
Mosquito fish; spotted Gambusia. (Poeciliidae). Gulf drainage from Texas to Alabama, North America; introduced in many countries. Cultivated in different countries for controlling mosquitoes. Hardy fish, which can stand all types of foul water conditions, poor food, overcrowding, etc. Temperature tolerance: above freezing point to 33°C. Reported to consume mosquitoes equal to its own weight per day.
Gambusia affinis holbrooki (Girard)
Mosquito fish. (Poeciliidae). New Jersey to Florida (U.S.A.). Introduced in California, Burma, Thailand, India, Hawaii, Tahiti, China (Taiwan), Philippines, Japan, Ghana, Madagascar, etc., for cultivation mainly as larvicidal fish, for malaria control. Temperature tolerance above freezing point to 32°C. Hardy fish which grows to about 5 cm. In winter the fish hibernates in mud. One specimen may consume about 165 mosquito larvae in two hours. Breeds in four months, depending on water temperature and food supply.
Gymnarchus niloticus Cuvier
(Gymnarchidae). Fresh waters of Nile basin and West Africa. Experimental cultivation in Cameroon and Nigeria. Adults feed on fish. Grows to about 2 m. Fecundity: 1 000. Prior to spawning the female constructs a floating nest of water plants, where the eggs are deposited. The male protects the nest during incubation. Larvae have a large yolk sac and external gills.
Haplochromis carlottae (Boulenger)
(Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Zambesi, Africa. Cultivated in ponds in Central East Africa. Carnivorous fish, feeding mainly on water snails. Mouth breeder, eggs and fry being carried by the female.
Haplochromis mellandi (Boulenger)
(Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Zambesi, Africa. Cultivated in small reservoirs of Zambia. Also in Zaire for bilharzia control, as the fish consume molluscs in ponds and rice fields. Mouth breeder, eggs and fry being carried by the female.
Helostoma temmincki Cuvier & Valenciennes
Kissing Gourami. (Helostomidae). Fresh waters of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc. Cultivated in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka and South Vietnam. Cage culture in Thailand. Temperature preference: 25–30°C. Mid-water and surface feeder, consuming plankton, mostly phyto. Resistant to low oxygen tension. Breeds in ponds if appropriate measures are taken. Annual production up to 500 kg/ha. Maximum size: 30 cm.
Hemichromis bimaculatus Gill
Jewelfish. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters and estuaries of West Africa. Cultivated in Ghana. Generally used as a laboratory animal. Maximum size: 10 cm. Temperature tolerance; 21–30°C. Fecundity: about 300.
Hemichromis fasciatus Peters
Jewelfish. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of North and West Africa and estuaries of West Africa. Cultivated in Cameroon, Zaire, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, etc. for tilapia control. Grows up to 25 cm. Breeds when about 15 cm long. Temperature tolerance: 21–30°C.
Hepsetus odoë (Bloch)
(Characinidae). Lake Tamba (Congo). Experimental cultivation in Cameroon.
Heterobranchus longifilis Cuvier & Valenciennes
(Claridae). Africa. Experimental mixed culture with tilapia.
Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)
Catfish. (Heteropneustidae). Tropical fresh waters of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and Khmer. Primarily a fish of ponds, ditches, swamps and marshes. Cultivated in India and Pakistan. Able to tolerate slightly brackish waters. Omnivorous, bottom feeder. Growth in first year estimated to be 20 cm. Breeding season prolonged. Air breathing fish and hence able to survive in mud and even out of water if body is kept moist. Great demand because of its medicinal value.
Heterotis niloticus Cuvier
(Heterotidae). Fresh waters of Africa. Cultivated in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Nigeria, Togo, etc. Nest built from vegetation. Larvae with external gills.
Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton)
Indian shad; hilsa. (Clupeidae). Foreshore areas, estuaries, brackishwater lakes and rivers of the West Indo-Pacific region. Experimental cultivation in India. Artificial propagation by stripping. Hatchlings have grown to 16 cm average length (range: 13–23 cm) in one year. Food: zoo and phytoplankton. Young and adult reported to feed at the bottom as well.
Hucho hucho (Linnaeus)
‘Huchen’. (Salmonidae). River Danube. Experimental cultivation in Morocco; also cultivated in Austria and Czechoslovakia. Immature fish feed on invertebrates, but from second year start feeding on fish. Spawns during spring, in natural waters, on gravelly ground. Grows to 15 cm in one year and 150 cm in 15 years.
Hydrocyon brevis Günther
Tigerfish. (Characinidae). Fresh waters and estuaries of West Africa. Cultivated in Ghana. Carnivorous fish, suitable for control of other fish and also as food fish. Very good swimmer and has very powerful teeth.
Hydrocyon forskali Cuvier
Tigerfish. (Characinidae). Fresh waters of Nigeria and Portuguese Guinea. Cultivated in Ghana. Other details same as H. brevis.
Hydrocyon vittatus Castelnau
Tigerfish. (Characinidae). Fresh waters of West Africa. Experimental cultivation in Mozambique.
Hypomesus olidus (Pallas)
Pond smelt. (Osmeridae). River fish, inhabiting fresh waters and estuaries, in Japan and Siberia. Cultivated in Japan. Feeds mostly on dipteran insects. Spawns in rivers from January to March. Fecundity: 1 179–3 836. Artificial propagation by stripping. Fertilized eggs shipped over long distances.
Hypophthalmichthys harmandi Sauvage
‘Ca duong; Ca coc’. (Cyprinidae). Freshwater river fish of Vietnam and Laos. Cultivated in Vietnam in association with common carp, Labeo collaris and Mylopharyngodon aethiops, providing the main part of stock. Plankton and detritus feeder. Does not breed in ponds. Fry collected from rivers and transported over long distances.
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes)
Silver carp. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of China; introduced in several countries. Cultivated in many countries like China, China (Taiwan), Thailand, Malaysia, Japan, Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Philippines, U.S.S.R., Burma, Hong Kong, Singapore, Egypt, etc. Able to tolerate slightly brackish waters. Plankton feeder, consuming both phyto and zooplankters. Grows to about 12.1 cm in one year, 25.6 cm in two years, 34.2 cm in three years and 41.4 cm in four years. Does not breed in ponds. Induced breeding by hypophysation followed by stripping has been successful. Reared generally in association with other species. Maximum annual production in manured ponds reported to be about 1 000 kg/ha.
Ictalurus catus (Linnaeus)
White catfish. (Ictaluridae). Fresh waters of Pennsylvania south to Texas (U.S.A.). Also found in estuaries of the region. Introduced to other areas in U.S.A. Cultivated in commercial farm ponds in U.S.A. Grows to about 450–675 g.
Ictalurus furcatus (Lesueur)1
Blue catfish. (Ictaluridae). Lakes and rivers of North America. Experimental cultivation in brackish waters in Mexico, U.S.A. Feeds on practically anything that it can ingest. Mostly nocturnal bottom feeder. Spring spawner and migrates in spring upstream and in autumn downstream.
Ictalurus melas (Rafinesque)
Black bullhead. (Ictaluridae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in fish ponds in Iowa (U.S.A.).
Ictalurus meridionalis Günther
Bagre. (Ictaluridae). North America and Mexico. Cultured in ponds.
Ictalurus natalis (Lesueur)
Yellow bullhead. (Ictaluridae). Fresh waters of North America. Artificially propagated in U.S.A. Food: worms, crustaceans, and fish are the preferred items, but can consume anything that it can ingest. Able to live in stagnant, polluted and muddy waters. Can also live out of water for long time. Spawns in late spring and early summer and extreme care is taken for preparation of the nest, which is built by both male and female.
Ictalurus nebulosus (Lesueur)
Square-tail catfish. (Ictaluridae). Rivers of U.S.A., U.S.S.R., etc. Descends into brackish water during the high water of the winter and spring. Cultivated in farm ponds in Alabama (U.S.A.). Food: chironomids, Trichoptera, molluscs and small quantities of fish.
Ictalurus nebulosus marmoratus (Holbrook)
Southern brown bullhead; speckled bullhead; red cat. (Ictaluridae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in U.S.A. Readily feed on minnows, crayfish, worms, etc., but take any item that can be ingested. Able to survive out of water for an extremely long time. Can live in stagnant, polluted and shallow muddy waters. While not strictly a schooling fish, it is gregarious and generally many numbers are found together. Breeds in late spring and early summer. Nest site is in water less than 1 m in depth and protected from strong currents. Great care is taken by the parents in building the nest. Production: 214–319 kg/ha with fertilization; 1 652–1 932 kg/ha with fertilization and supplementary feeding with soyabean meal and cake. Minimum marketable size: 340–450 g.
Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque)
Channel catfish. (Ictaluridae). Great Lakes and Mississippi Valley of U.S.A. Introduced in Atlantic and Pacific coasts and Europe. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in U.S.A. Experimental culture in brackish waters in Mexico. Feeds on various animal and plant material. Best method for rearing channel catfish has been found to release hatched fry direct into ponds. Breeding in open ponds with spawning receptacles; in pens kept in holding ponds; in milk cans and terra cotta pipes; and by hypophysation. Fecundity: about 8 800 per kg body weight. Production up to 2 423 kg/ha has been obtained in 252 days at stocking rate of 4 942 fingerlings per ha and supplementary feeding with pellets.
Ictiobus bubalus (Rafinesque)1
Small mouth buffalo. (Catostomidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in U.S.A. ponds. Benthophagic. Cultured in rotation with rice. Stocked at 125–250/ha, reach marketable size in two years: production rate being 300–400 kg/ha/year. Spawns in spring and first half of summer, generally on submerged vegetation in backwaters during river overflows.
Ictiobus cyprinellus (Valenciennes)1
Syn. Megastomatobus cyprinellus (Valenciennes)
Bigmouth buffalo. (Catostomidae). Fresh waters of central U.S.A. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in U.S.A. Stocking rate of brood fish in wintering ponds: 450–675 kg/ha; for fertilized ponds: 1 100–2 250 kg/ha. Other details same as I. bubalus.
Ictiobus niger (Rafinesque)
Black buffalo. (Catostomidae). Fresh waters of U.S.A. Cultivated in ponds in U.S.A. Details same as I. bubalus.
Labeo bata (Hamilton)
Bata. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of India and Pakistan. Cultivated along with Indian major carps in India and Pakistan. Omnivorous. Feeds on phyto and zooplankton, filamentous algae and small animals. Does not breed in ponds. Induced breeding by hypophysation successful in India.
Labeo calbasu (Hamilton)
Calbasu. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of India, Pakistan, Burma and Thailand. Cultivated in association with other species in India, Pakistan, and Burma. Able to tolerate slightly brackish water. Omnivore, detritus feeder. Does not breed in ponds. Induced breeding by hypophysation. Egg: 5–6 mm diameter, bluish, demersal and non-adhesive. Growth in first year: 30–35 cm and 450 g.
Labeo collaris Nichols & Pope
(Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of Vietnam, Laos and China. Cultivated in association with Hypophthalmichthys harmandi and Mylopharyngodon piceus in Vietnam. Omnivore; mainly plankton feeder. Adult mid-water feeder. Does not breed in ponds.
Labeo coubie Rüppell
(Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of North Africa. Cultivated in ponds in Ghana. Grows up to 45 cm in length. Breeds in ponds.
Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch)
Fringe-lipped carp. (Cyprinidae). Cultivated in ponds, along with other carps in India. Mainly a herbivore at the river bottom and pockets in shallow marginal areas. The main food items are Bacillariaceae, Chlorophyceae, Myxophyceae, macrovegetation, animal matter and decayed organic matter. Grows to about 23 cm and 450 g in one year and 31 cm in two years. Does not breed in ponds.
Labeo gonius (Hamilton)
(Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of India, Pakistan and Burma. Cultivated in ponds in Assam (India). Artificial propagation by hypophysation and ‘bundh breeding’. Does not breed in ponds. In natural waters spawning takes place during south west monsoon.
Labeo kontius (Jerdon)
Cauvery carp. (Cyprinidae). Rivers of south India. Cultivated in ponds in south India. Food of adults consists of algal filaments, diatoms, pieces of higher plants, copepods, rotifers, insects and worms. Growth in ponds: 23–30 cm and 330 g in one year. Hardy fish, which can tolerate polluted waters. Does not breed in ponds. Female matures at 30–36 cm and male at 27 cm. Breeding in rivers takes place in June and July when the floods occur and water temperature is about 22°C.
Labeo lineatus Boulenger
(Cyprinidae). Rivers in Kasai, Africa. Experimental cultivation in ponds, in Congo and Nigeria.
Labeo rohita (Hamilton)1
Rohu. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of India, Pakistan and Burma. Cultivated in India, Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Japan. Able to live in slightly brackish waters. Column feeder. Fry feed on unicellular algae and zooplankton. Up to 25 cm in length, consumes larger quantities of vegetable matter, including higher plants. Grows to 35–45 cm and 900 g in one year, 3.6 kg in two years and 5.4 kg in three years. Does not breed in ponds. Eggs, fry and fingerlings collected from rivers, reservoirs and ‘bundh’-type tanks for culture in ponds along with other Indian major carps. Induced breeding by hypophysation.
Labeo senegalensis Cuvier & Valenciennes
‘Adublaku’. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of North Africa. Cultivated in ponds in Nigeria. Breeds in ponds. In natural waters the fish is reported to migrate to swamps to spawn.
Lateolabrax japonicus (Cuvier & Valenciennes)
Japanese sea-bass; suzuki. (Serranidae). Seas of Japan, Korea, Formosa and China Sea. Moderate and experimental cultivation in China (Taiwan) and Japan respectively. Grows to about 90 cm or more. Spawns in brackish waters. Juveniles ascend rivers and stay there in spring and summer, but move to salt water in the autumn. Matures when 3–4 years old.
Lates calcarifer (Bloch)
Cock-up. (Centropomidae). Persian Gulf and Indo-Pacific seas. Cultivated in India and Pakistan (brackish waters) and Thailand and Indonesia (fresh waters). Cage culture also in Thailand. Extremely predacious column feeder. Important food items: fish, crustaceans, snails and worms. Cannibalistic when food is rare. Grows to 30 cm and 500 g in one year. Does not breed in ponds. Generally thought to breed in winter season at the mouths of estuaries.
Lates niloticus (Linnaeus)
Nile perch. (Centropomidae). Widely distributed in the Nile system and Ethiopian region of Africa. Cultivated in brackishwater ponds in Africa. Ghana, Egypt, Cameroon, Morocco, Nigeria, Uganda, etc., have the fish in freshwater impoundments also. Carnivorous. Ascends streams for short distances, for the purpose of spawning. Young fish find suitable shelter and food in littoral waters and grow rapidly. Well balanced mixed population suggested for culture in Uganda: Tilapia nilotica and T. zilli, 40 percent; Cyprinus carpio, 40 percent and L. niloticus, 20 percent.
Leiostomus xanthurus Lacépède
Spot. (Sciaenidae). Marine fish, distributed from Massachusetts to Texas (U.S.A.) and West Indies. Experimental culture in South Carolina. Grows to 25 cm and 340 g. Food: small fishes, crustaceans, worms and some plants. Makes migration to and from inshore and offshore waters. Spawning takes place in autumn or winter, not far offshore.
Lepomis cyanellus Rafinesque
Green sunfish. (Centrarchidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in ponds in U.S.A. Sport fish. Average length: 15–20 cm. Food: insects, worms, leeches, small minnows and small crustaceans.
Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus)
Pumpkinseed. (Centrarchidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in U.S.A. and France. Size: about 20 cm. Predaceous. Food: insects, worms, leeches, minnows and crustaceans. Spawning in late spring and early summer. Nest built by the parents on the bottom, usually in calm waters, on gravelly, sandy or weedy areas.
Lepomis humilis (Girard)
Orange spotted sunfish. (Centrarchidae). Fresh waters of North America. Unofficially stocked in ponds in Iowa. Other details same as L. gibbosus.
Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque
Bluegill sunfish. (Centrarchidae). Fresh waters of North America, Central and South America and Africa. Cultivated in U.S.A., Congo, Zambia, Brazil and Japan. Food: fishes, insects, crayfish, etc. Eats its own eggs when food is not available. Spring spawner. Male scoops out typical saucer shaped depression in the bottom in shallow water. Hybridization occurs in nature. In one crop by stocking a large number of adults, more than 100 000 fingerlings may be produced. Within a year, by proper manipulation of the spawning ponds, two or more crops may be raised.
Lepomis microlophus (Günther)
Redear sunfish; shellcracker. (Centrarchidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in ponds in U.S.A. Feeds mainly on snails; used in Puerto Rico to destroy host of bilharzia.
Leporinus copelandi Steindachner
‘Piava’. (Anostomidae). Rivers in South America. Artificial propagation by hypophysation for stocking ponds, lakes, rivers and reservoirs in Brazil. Spawns naturally in running waters only.
Leporinus elongatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes)
‘Piapara’. (Anostomidae). Details same as L. copelandi.
Leporinus octofasciatus
‘Piavussu’. (Anostomidae). Details same as L. copelandi.
Leporinus sp.
‘Piau’. (Anostomidae). Details same as L. copelandi.
Leuciscus (Idus) idus (Linnaeus)
Ide, silver orfe. (Cyprinidae). Rivers and lakes of Europe from the Rhine eastward to Siberia. Cultivated in middle and southern states of U.S.S.R., France and Japan. Young feed mainly on zooplankton. Older fish feed primarily on benthonic insects and occasionally on fish. Grows to about 7 cm, 14 cm, 19 cm, 23 cm and 26 cm in the first five years respectively. Sexually mature at 3–5 years. Breeding season April to July; eggs are laid on stones and vegetation. Fecundity: 39 000–114 000.
Limanda yokohamae (Günther)
Flounder; makogarei. (Pleuronectidae). Japan coast and coast of Asiatic continent. Spawns in winter. Eggs adhesive and demersal. Grows to about 30 cm. Experimental culture in Japan. Artificial feeds: mackerel flesh, followed by annelids and flesh of clams.
Matsya sinensis (Bleeker)
‘Tsing fish’. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of south west China and Yang Tze Valley. Experimental cultivation in China. Feeds on vegetable matter, crustaceans, diatoms, worms, etc. This fish has great resistance to dryness. Spawning season: May to September.
Megalobrama terminalis (Richardson)
Black bream. (Cyprinidae). Rivers in U.S.S.R., Vietnam, Laos and China. Cultivated in association with other species, in Vietnam ponds. Feeds on aquatic vegetation. Breeds in natural waters during April to May. Does not breed in ponds.
Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet)
Tarpon; ox-eyed herring. (Megalopidae). Seas and estuaries from East Africa to Australia and Japan. Can be acclimatized to fresh waters. Cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, and Hawaii. Fry feed on small crustaceans, rotifers and diatoms. Adults consume fish, crustaceans, insects and other animals. Reported to grow to 35 cm in freshwater ponds and 40 cm in brackishwater ponds, in one year. Breeds generally in coastal waters, with prolonged season. Attains sexual maturity at about 25 cm length.
Micropterus coosae Hubbs & Bailey
Redeye bass. (Centrarchidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in ponds, in U.S.A., for sport purposes.
Micropterus dolomieui Lacépède
Smallmouth bass. (Centrarchidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in Canada, Belgium and France. Food: crayfish, fish, insects, worms, etc. Grows to about 10 cm, 15 cm, 23 cm, 27 cm, 32 cm, 35 cm and 40 cm in the first seven years respectively. Nest builder. Male builds nest on firm bottoms in shallow waters. After absorption of yolk, fry rise from the nest and swim away, convoyed by the male parent, in pursuit of food. To collect fry, a wire cylinder extending above the surface of water is placed around the nest and the male driven off. The free-swimming hatchlings are collected and transferred to rearing ponds.
Micropterus punctulatus (Rafinesque)
Spotted bass. (Centrarchidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in U.S.A. ponds. Food: crayfish, fish, insects, other crustaceans, worms, frogs and grubs. Spawning habits similar to those of smallmouth bass.
Micropterus salmoides (Lacépède)
Black bass; largemouth bass. (Centrarchidae). Fresh waters of North America from Canada to Mexico. Introduced into several countries. Cultivated in Canada, U.S.A., Egypt, Belgium, France, Spain, Congo, Cameroon, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Rhodesia, South Africa, etc. Acclimatized in Soviet lakes. Food: minnows, crayfish, worms, insects, frogs, etc. Eats also snakes, small birds, field mice, etc. Grows to about 10 cm in one year, 17 cm and 500 g in two years and 22 cm in three years. Nest site selected by male, which cleans the silt and debris with its tail. A nest may hold about 1 000 to 11 000 eggs, average being 4 000–5 000. The male guards the nest and young fry in them. As the yolk is absorbed, the young begin to feed and leave the nest. For breeding, normally 40–100 pairs are used per acre, in the ratio of four males to six females.
Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (Cantor)
Oriental weatherfish; Japanese weatherfish; amur weatherfish; mud loach. (Cobitidae). Rivers of eastern Asia. Cultivated in Japan. Grows to about 20 cm in length. Spawning takes place over muddy bottom. Induced breeding by hypophysation.
Morone mississippiensis Jordan and Eigenmann
Yellow bass. (Percichthyidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in U.S.A. ponds. Introduced in Japan. Food: minnows, worms, insects and crustaceans. Average size: 450–900 g. The fish ascends streams for spawning. Eggs are deposited on clear gravel or sandy bottom.
Morone saxatilis (Walbaum)
Striped bass; rock; rockfish. (Percichthyidae). Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America, migrating to rivers in the region, for spawning. Cultivated in U.S.A., as a management tool and sport species. Hatchery produced fingerlings are released in natural waters. Introduced into U.S.S.R. for stocking purposes. Food: fishes and crustaceans. Males mature by third year and females by fourth year. Induced breeding by hypophysation.
Mugil auratus Risso
Golden-grey mullet. (Mugilidae). Black Sea. Cultivated in Italy and U.S.S.R. (experimental rearing in Sea of Azov basin). Unable to withstand salinities less than 20–24 ppt and in excess of 40–45 ppt. Food: periphyton, detritus and small invertebrates. Feeds intensively in estuaries during summer. Fecundity: 157 700–926 000. Attains 20–30 cm length in Soviet waters.
Mugil brasiliensis Spix
Tainha. (Mugilidae). South America. Cultivated in brackishwater ponds in Brazil.
Mugil capito Cuvier
Syn. Mugil ramada Risso
Mullet. (Mugilidae). Mediterranean and Atlantic from Scandinavia to South Africa. Found also in estuaries of West Africa. Cultivated in Greece, Italy and Israel. Able to adapt to fresh water. Grows to 40 cm length. Induced breeding by hypophysation reported to be successful in Israel.
Mugil cephalus Linnaeus
Grey mullet; jumping mullet; striped mullet. (Mugilidae). Very widely distributed in coastal waters and estuaries of tropical and sub-tropical zones of Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Cultivated in different countries like Japan, Hong Kong, China, Philippines, Korea, India, Egypt, Israel, Italy, France, U.S.A., Hawaii, etc., as primary, secondary or experimental crop. Generally cultured in brackish waters, and occasionally in fresh waters as in India. Food: fry - phyto and zooplankton with diatoms and epiphytic Cyanophyceae; adult - algae, debris and detritus and decayed plants in ponds. Average growth: 14 cm, 24 cm, 33 cm, 39 cm and 50 cm in the first four years and 6–7 years respectively. Believed to spawn in sea during winter. Does not breed in ponds or rivers. Induced breeding by hypophysation has been successful in China (Taiwan), Israel, Hawaii, and India.
Mugil chelo Cuvier
Mullet. (Mugilidae). Atlantic, from Scandinavia to the Canary Islands and Mediterranean. Cultivated in brackishwater ponds in France and Italy (Valli fish culture). Able to adapt to fresh water. Grows to about 55 cm in length.
Mugil cunnesius Valenciennes
Mullet. (Mugilidae). Red Sea to Far East. Limited cultivation in fresh and brackishwater ponds in India. Food: algae, diatoms and detritus. Breeds in natural waters during south west monsoon. Grows to 30 cm in length.
Mugil curema Valenciennes
Tainha. (Mugilidae). South America. Cultivated in brackishwater ponds in Brazil.
Mugil falcipinnis Valenciennes
Mullet. (Mugilidae). West coast of Africa, from Senegambia to Angola. Also found in estuaries of the region. Experimental cultivation in Nigerian brackishwater ponds. Food: predominantly algae and detritus. Breeds in sea, and fry and juveniles enter estuaries. Grows up to 53 cm.
Mugil grandisquamis Valenciennes
Mullet. (Mugilidae). African coast(Senegal to Niger); estuaries of West Africa. Grows to 38 cm. Experimental cultivation in Nigerian brackishwater ponds. Food and other habits similar to M. falcipinnis.
Mugil macrolepis (Smith) Aguas
Mullet. (Mugilidae). East coast of Africa to Far East. Limited cultivation in brackishwater impoundments in India. Grows to 28 cm. Food habits similar to other mullets. Fecundity: 151 920–676 200. Induced breeding by hypophysation has been reported to be successful in Kerala (India).
Mugil parsia Hamilton
Syn. Mugil dussumieri Valenciennes
Grey mullet. (Mugilidae). Fairly wide distribution in Indo-Pacific seas and estuaries. Cultivated in brackishwater impoundments in India, Pakistan and Indonesia. Food: fry - phyto and zooplankton; adult - benthic algae, micro-fauna, decayed vegetable matter and detritus. Grows to 15–19 cm in one year. Maximum length attained in natural waters is about 40 cm and in ponds, about 25 cm. Does not breed in ponds. Believed to spawn in sea, fry occur in littoral waters in India and Indonesia during October to April. The fish can be acclimatized to fresh water.
Mugil saliens Risso
Golden-grey mullet. (Mugilidae). Black Sea; Mediterranean to South Africa. Transplanted to the Caspian Sea. Cultivated in brackishwater ponds in Greece and Italy (Valli fish culture). Adapts to fresh water. Food: periphyton, detritus and small invertebrates. Grows to 20–30 cm under culture conditions. Growth rate: 12–21 cm, 21–28 cm, 26–33 cm, 30–36 cm and 36–41 cm in the first five years respectively.
Mugil tade Forskål
Grey mullet. (Mugilidae). Red Sea, Arabian Sea and tropical Indo-Pacific seas. Cultivated in brackish waters in India, Pakistan and Indonesia. Able to adapt to even freshwater conditions. The adult is iliophagous and feeds on algae, diatoms and decayed organic matter in benthic zones. Fingerlings up to 20 mm feed on floating and attached Myxophyceae. Grows to 24–25 cm in one year, and 34–36 cm in two years. Does not breed in ponds. Presumed to spawn in Indian seas during south west monsoon and in Indonesian seas during west monsoon.
Myletes bidens Spix
Tambaqui. (Characidae). South America. Cultivated in ponds in Brazil. Herbivorous. Grows to 3 kg in two years. Sexual maturity in four years.
Mylio macrocephalus (Bleeker)
Black sea bream; black porgy. (Sparidae). Japan coast. Cultivated in Japan. Artificial propagation by hypophysation. Eggs obtained between 24–72 hours after injection. Fertilization by stripping. The hatchlings and larvae are fed with oyster larvae, rotifers, cirriped larvae, copepods and larvae of brine shrimp. Fish start feeding chopped fish or fish meal diets when they are 30–40 days old.
Mylopharyngodon piceus (Richardson)
Syn. Mylopharyngodon aethiops (Basilewsky)
Black carp; black Amur; Chinese roach. (Cyprinidae). Freshwater river-lake fish in U.S.S.R., China, Vietnam and China (Taiwan). Cultivated in China, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia. Not esteemed as pond fish outside China. Pond fish fed with snails. Grows to 3–13 cm, 30–40 cm and 2.5 kg, and 65 cm and 3.5–5 kg, in the first three years respectively. Does not breed in ponds. Fry collected in rivers; after rearing in nurseries, shipped over long distances.
Mylossoma sp.
Pirapitinga. (Characidae). South America. Cultivated in ponds in Brazil. Food: fruits. Sexual maturity in three years.
Navodon modestus (Günther)
File fish, umazurahagi. (Monacanthidae). Coasts of Japan and southern Korea. Spawning season in June and July. Grows to about 32 cm. Experimental culture in Japan.
Notemigonus crysoleucas (Mitchill)
Golden shiner. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in U.S.A. Commercial production in ponds as popular bait minnows. Artificial propagation in hatcheries. Food; algae, microcrustacea, insects, aquatic plants and snails. Spawns on submerged debris and vegetation. Fry can be left with adults or moved to separate rearing ponds. Heavy rate of reporudction and hence the principal problem in culture is of over population of small fish. Production rate: about 1 346 kg/ha.
Nothobranchius taenipygus Hilgandorf
Top-minnow. (Cyprinodontidae). Fresh waters of East Africa. Cultivated in Africa for biological control of mosquitoes. Ravenous feeder on insects and larvae. Eggs droughtresistant; hatch in four to six days when placed in water and grow to full size in three or four weeks in minimum of water. Temperature preference: 22–27°C. Grows to 5 cm; breeds at 4 cm.
Odonthestes (Basilichthys) bonariensis (Cuvier & Valenciennes)
Atherinid pejerry; silver side. (Atherinidae). Lake system of Buenos Aires. Artificial propagation Santa Fe, La Pompa, Cordoba and San Luis. Introduced for cultivation in Japan, Italy and Morocco.
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum)
Pink salmon; humpbacked salmon. (Salmonidae). Northern part of Pacific Ocean - American shores. Marine and freshwater migratory fish. Hatchery propagation in Canada. Food: young - insects and worms; adults - insects, worms, crustaceans and small fish. Grows to 44–49 cm. Males larger than females. Grows rapidly and becomes sexually mature in second year. Fecundity: low, average being 1 519.
Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum)
Chum salmon; dog salmon. (Salmonidae). Asiatic shore of U.S.S.R., to Korea, northern Japan and American coast, south to San Francisco. Cultivated in Japan (saltwater and freshwater ponds) and U.S.S.R. (in hatcheries during low winter temperatures). Food: insects, worms, crustaceans, small fish and detritus.
Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum)
Coho salmon; silver salmon. (Salmonidae). North American coast of the Pacific Ocean and Asiatic coast from Anadyr to Hokkaido (Japan). Cultivated in North America; successfully introduced into the Great Lakes. Very popular with sportsmen. Average weight: 4–5 kg. Food: insects, worms, crustaceans and small fish. Sexually mature in third or fourth year. Fecundity: about 5 000. Spawning and hatching period extremely prolonged. Young usually stay in rivers for two years where they feed first on zooplankton and later on fish.
Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum)
Sockeye salmon; red salmon; blueback salmon. Land-locked forms known as kokanee. (Salmonidae). Asiatic shores from Anadyr to Hokkaido, Kamchatka River in U.S.S.R., Bering Strait to California in U.S.A., lakes of Japan, Kamchatka and North America. Cultivated in Japan and Canada. Artificial propagation in U.S.S.R. Migration to the rivers of Kamchatka usually begins from end of May and peaks from middle of June to end of July. Red salmon in migratory state is four to six years old. Spawn chiefly in lakes. Food in rivers - planktonic crustaceans; in sea - fish. Reported to consume insects and worms also. Average weight: 2.5–4 kg. Fry reared in nurseries for stocking operations. Generally not suited for ponds.
Oncorhynchus rhodurus (Jordan & McGregor)
Salmon; ‘Amenouo’. (Salmonidae). Rivers of south Japan. Artificial propagation by stripping and artificial fertilization in Japan. Predatory fish. Spawns in November in streams. Maximum size about 50 cm. Not suitable for cultivation in ponds. Seldom attains length of more than 25 cm.
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum)
King salmon; chinook salmon; quinnat salmon. (Salmonidae). South California to Alaska; northern Japan on Asiatic side. Introduced in Chile and New Zealand. Hatcheries, experimental culture in U.S.A. One of the largest game fish found on the Pacific coast of U.S.A. Food: small salmon, before migrating to sea feed on insects, worms and crustaceans. At sea, small fish, shrimps, squids and other crustaceans are consumed. Breeds in its third year of life. Major portion of life spent at sea and the fish ascends freshwater streams, to spawn. Fecundity: 4 600–14 300. Spawning takes place in autumn and the eggs hatch in about 50 days. Some of the young make their way to sea at once, but others remain in fresh water until the following year.
Ophiocephalus marulius Hamilton
Syn. Channa marulius (Hamilton)
Snakehead; murrel. (Ophicephalidae). Fresh waters of India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam and China?. Cultivated in fresh waters of India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Khmer, etc. Food: small fishes, frogs, tadpoles and water insects. Fast grower, attaining about 12 cm in two months and 40 cm in one year. Breeds in ponds without particular measures. Breeding season in India: April–June. Nest builder and parental care till young ones are able to take food.
Ophiocephalus obscurus Günther
(Ophicephalidae). Fresh waters of Senegal to Congo (Africa). Cultivated for Tilapia control in Cameroon and Nigeria.
Ophiocephalus punctatus (Bloch)
Syn. Channa punctatus (Bloch)
Snakehead; murrel. (Ophicephalidae). Fresh waters of India, Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China, Tahiti and Polynesia. Cultivated in India and Pakistan. Fry up to 5 mm feed mainly on unicellular algae, beyond this stage they show carnivorous tendencies. Up to 8 cm length, the food items are protozoans, rotifers, copepods, insects and vegetable matter. Larger fish consume mostly fishes. Matures in first year. Nest building and parental care similar to other species of the genus.
Ophiocephalus striatus Bloch
Syn. Channa striatus (Bloch)
Snakehead; murrel. (Ophicephalidae). Fresh waters of India-Sri Lanka to China and through Indonesia and Borneo to the Philippines. Cultivated in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Khmer and Pakistan. Able to tolerate slightly brackish water. Food: fish, frogs, insects and snails. Breeds in ponds without particular measures. Matures when about two years old. Spawning season in India May-June and December-February, in Indonesia January-May and Sri Lanka before and after rainy season. Nest prepared by parent fish biting off the aquatic vegetation over a roundish area in shallow water near the edge of a lake or canal. When eggs are laid, they form a thin film, which is guarded by the male. Able to live in foul water because of accessory respiratory organ. Can survive for months without water when buried in moist soil.
Oryzias melastigmus (McClelland)
Paddle fish. (Cyprinodontidae). Fresh waters of India, Pakistan, Burma and Sri Lanka. Cultivated in India for mosquito control. Attains about 38 mm length.
Oplegnathus punctatus (Temminck & Schlegel)
Spotted parrot fish; ishigakidae. (Oplegnathidae). Occurs in waters southward from middle Honshu, Korea and East China Sea. Grows to about 40 cm. Experimental culture in Japan.
Osphronemus goramy (Lacépède)
Gourami. (Osphronemidae). Fresh waters of Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Khmer and Vietnam. Transplanted to many countries. Cultivated in Indonesia, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Madagascar, etc. Hatcheries have been established in Thailand. Able to live in slightly brackish waters. Nest builder. Fecundity: 500–2 000. Useful in controlling some aquatic weeds.
Osteochilus hasseltii (Cuvier & Valenciennes)
Nilem. (Cyprinidae). Lakes and rivers of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam and Khmer. Cultivated in ponds in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. Hatcheries have been established in Thailand. Larvae and fry feed on phyto and zooplankton, unicellular algae being the main items. Adults feed on Bacillariophyceae, Desmidiaceae, Chlorophyceae and soft or decayed leaves of higher plants. Nibbles at the leaves of aquatic plants and rasps off the covering growth of vegetable micro-organisms. Breeds in ponds if suitable measures are taken. In the special spawning ponds a strong flow of water across a bed of coarse gravel or stones is produced. Maximum length: 35 cm.
Osteochilus thomassi (Day)
Nagendram fish. (Cyprinidae). Rivers of south India. Cultivated in ponds in south India. Food: phytoplankton, mainly diatoms and filamentous algae. The fish browses on bottom and at margins of ponds. Grows to 30 cm and 300–400 g in one year, in ponds. Does not breed in ponds. Matures at about 23 cm, about one year old. Spawning season: May-June.
Oxyeleotris marmorata (Bleeker)
Sandgoby, pla bu. (Eleotridae). Rivers and estuaries of Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Fiji Islands, etc. Cultivated in Malaysia and Vietnam. Grows to 46 cm.
Pagrus major (Temminck & Schlegel)
Red sea bream. (Sparidae). Japan coast. Experimental cultivation in Japan. Artificial propagation by stripping, for release in natural waters. About 100 000–500 000 fry are provided annually by the hatcheries. At water temperature of 14°C, growth is reported to be 0.6–0.7 kg in 1½ years and 1.2–1.5 kg in 2½ years. Spawning season: May to early June. Fry are fed with rotifers, zooplankton and nauplii of brine shrimp. At 15–20 mm length, when the fry are about one month old, chopped flesh of fish and shrimps is given.
Pangasius larnaudi Bocourt
Catfish. (Pangasidae). Rivers and lakes of Thailand and adjoining parts of Indo-China (Khmer and Vietnam). Cultivated in Thailand and Vietnam. Feeds in confined waters on almost any food offered. Grows to about 450 g in one year and 1 kg in two years. Maximum weight of fish in ponds or cages is about 1.5 kg. Does not breed in ponds. Fry collected from rivers during August-September.
Pangasius micronemus Bleeker
Catfish. (Pangasidae). Rivers of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Khmer, Vietnam and North Borneo. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in Vietnam. Carnivorous in open waters and omnivorous in ponds. Quick grower. Cage culture in Thailand. Does not spawn in ponds.
Pangasius pangasius (Hamilton)
Catfish; pangas. (Pangasidae). Rivers of India, Burma, Java and Thailand. Cultivated in Thailand. Experimental cultivation in India, mainly for mollusc control. Carnivorous. Does not breed in ponds.
Pangasius sanitwongsei H.M. Smith
Catfish. (Pangasidae). Fresh waters of Thailand. Occasionally reared in pens and ponds in Thailand and Vietnam. Voracious predator: feeds on carcasses. Does not breed in confined waters. Grows up to 3 m in length. Generally inhabits deeper parts of the rivers and only the young are likely to be observed in the minor tributaries.
Pangasius sutchi Fowler
Catfish. (Pangasidae). Rivers and lakes of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Khmer and Vietnam. Cultivated in Thailand and Vietnam. Cage culture in Thailand. Carnivorous in open waters and omnivorous in ponds. Grows to 150 cm length. Does not spawn in ponds. Spawning period in rivers: March-May. Fry collected generally from August to September.
Parabramis pekinensis (Basilewsky)
White Amur bream. (Cyprinidae). Rivers of Amur basin (U.S.S.R.) and China. Cultivated in China. Fry feed on zooplankton; adults take in vegetation along with little quantities of animal matter. Grows to 8 cm, 11 cm, 15 cm, 19 cm, 22 cm, 27 cm, and 29 cm in the first seven years respectively. Matures in sixth year. Spawning season: generally summer.
Paralichthys lethostigma Jordan & Gilbert
Southern flounder. (Paralichthyidae). Seas from South Carolina northward and Gulf coast and up to New York. Experimental saltwater cultivation in South Carolina, U.S.A. Spawning season: November-December.
Paralichthys olivaceus (Temminck & Schlegel)
Pacific flounder; hirame (Paralichthyidae). Japan coast and up to Hong Kong. Most delicious and expensive flounder in Japan. Grows up to about 80 cm. Experimental culture in Japan.
Parasilurus asotus (Linnaeus)
Korea catfish; Amur catfish. (Siluridae). Lake-river fish in plateau of Amur basin (U.S.S.R.), China, Korea and central Japan. Experimental rearing in small ponds in Korea. Food: smaller fish. Ceases feeding during winter. Generally spawns in still backwaters, having submerged vegetation, at temperatures 16–18°C. Does not build any nest, scatters eggs at random and does not protect them.
Paratilapia polleni Bleeker
(Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Madagascar. Experimental cultivation in Madagascar. Grows to about 20 cm length.
Perca flavescens (Mitchill)
Yellow perch. (Percidae). Lake-river fish in eastern part of North America. Introduced to Pacific coast of U.S.A. Cultivated in U.S.A. and Japan. Average size: about 450 g. Food: worms, small minnows, crayfish and insects. Voracious feeder. Spawning in spring. No nest is prepared, but the eggs are produced in a zig-zag gelatinous string which the male fertilizes as they appear. The young hatch in one week.
Perca fluviatilis Linnaeus
English perch; common perch. (Percidae). Europe, North America and northern Asia. Found in freshwater brooks, rivers and lakes, both warm and cold from sea level up to 1 100 m; also in brackish waters. Cultivated in Australia and Morocco. Post larvae feed on zooplankton and adults on insects and crustaceans. Spawns usually in April and May. Eggs are laid in long strings on plants, stones and other supports along with shallow margins of lakes and rivers. Fecundity: 12 000–300 000. Highly esteemed as food fish because of its excellent flavour.
Petenia esplendida Günther
Tenguayaca. (Cichlidae). South America. Cultivated in ponds in Brazil.
Phoxinus phoxinus (Linnaeus)
European minnow. (Cyprinidae). Whole of Europe with the exception of southern Spain and Iceland. Cultured as baitfish for salmonids. Food: mainly insect larvae and small crustaceans. Breeding season during April to July. Matures at three to four years. Breeding in captivity not difficult.
Pimelodus clarias Bloch
Mandi. (Pimelodidae). South America. Experimental culture in Brazil. Grows to 30 cm.
Pimephales notatus Rafinesque
Bluntnose minnow. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in U.S.A. as baitfish. Spawns over a long period as soon as water reaches 21°C. Eggs adhesive and laid in water from 15–90 cm deep. Females can spawn twice in one season.
Pimephales promelas Rafinesque
Fathead minnow. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in U.S.A. ponds. Postspawning mortality of adults reported to be 20–91 percent, with higher survival of females. Generally sex ratio is 5 females: 1 male.
Plagioscion squamosissimus Heckel
Pescado do piau; corvina. (Sciaenidae). South America. Experimental culture in freshwater ponds in Brazil. Carnivorous. Grows to 16 kg. Very sensitive to changes in temperature and dissolved oxygen. Spawns naturally in ponds.
Plagioscion surinamensis (Bleeker)
‘Pescada cacunda’. (Sciaenidae). Fresh waters of South America. Extensively used for cultivation in Brazil. Naturally spawns in lakes. Artificial propagation by hypophysation.
Plecoglossus altivelis Temminck & Schlegel
Ayu. (Plecoglossidae). From sea to fresh waters in southern Japan, Korea and northern part of China (Taiwan). Cultivated in Japan (cage culture under experimentation). Experimental cultivation in U.S.S.R. Food: diatoms, blue-green algae and other algal vegetation attached to pebbles and stones in river beds. Migrating form (‘Ayu’) ascends rivers during March to May and descends to lower reaches to spawn during October and November. Fry migrate to sea. Landlocked form (‘Koayu’) inhabits inland waters; spawns in the same habitats. Eggs of landlocked form obtained by stripping are artificially fertilized and shipped over long distances. Eggs obtained by light treatment also, but the quality of eggs produced thus are reported to be poorer than those from river bred fish.
Pleuronectes platesa Linnaeus
Plaice. (Pleuronectidae). Seas of Scotland and England; transplanted to Denmark. Experimental cultivation in Isle of Man. In a 5-acre pilot project in Scotland, which is Britain's first sea fishfarm, the hatchery survival is reported to be 66 percent.
Pneumatophorus japonicus diego (Ayres)
Pacific mackerel. (Scombridae). West coast of North America (Alaska to California); east coast of Asia (?). Experimental mariculture in U.S.A. Food: fish, squids, shrimps, copepods, etc. Supposed to be a scavenger. Known to spawn in open bays.
Pogonias cromis Linnaeus
Black drum. (Sciaenidae). Bays, inlets and seas from Long Island to Florida and Texas (U.S.A.); said to run to Argentina. Able to tolerate brackish waters up to salinity of 20 ppt. Cultivated along with mullet and Sciaenops sp. in South Carolina in U.S.A. Predatory fish, the common food items being fishes, crustaceans and molluscs. Bottom feeder.
Polyodon spathula Walbaum
Paddle fish. (Polyodontidae). Rivers and lakes of U.S.A. Cultivated in ponds in U.S.A. Artificial propagation in hatcheries. Food: pelagic crustaceans and insect larvae. The fish feeds by swimming in deep layers of the water with its mouth open, thus filtering planktonic animals in the dense gill rakers. Spawns in the spring, on sandy or stony bottoms in channels and in shallow lakes.
Polypterus senegalus Cuvier
(Polypteridae). Rivers and lakes of Africa. Experimental culture in Cameroon (abandoned in many cases). Carnivorous fish. Spawns from July to September in natural waters.
Pomoxis annularis Rafinesque
White crappie. (Centrarchidae). Fresh waters of North America. Cultivated in ponds in U.S.A. and Morocco. Food: insects, crustaceans and fish. Nests built around the roots of vegetation. Young sluggish and rarely seen. Production reported to be 15 000–20 000 fingerlings per 0.5 ha.
Pomoxis nigromaculatus (Lesueur)
Black crappie. (Centrarchidae). Fresh waters of U.S.A. Cultivated in ponds in U.S.A. and Morocco. Food: fishes and crustaceans. Grows to 8 cm, 15 cm, 20 cm, 25 cm, and 30 cm in the first four years and seventh year respectively. Male builds and guards the nest. Spawns in late spring and early summer.
Prochilodus argenteus Spix
‘Curimbata pacu’. (Anostomidae). Rivers and streams in northern South America. Spawns in running waters. Propagation by hypophysation in Brazil for stocking ponds, lakes, rivers and reservoirs.
Prochilodus scrofa Steindachner
‘Curimbata’. (Anostomidae). Rivers and streams in northern South America. Details same as P. argenteus.
Prochilodus sp.
‘Curimbata comum’. (Anostomidae). Rivers and streams in northern South America. Details same as P. argenteus.
Puntius belinka (Bleeker)
‘Belinka’. (Cyprinidae). Freshwater river fish in Sumatra and Malaysia. Cultivated in ponds in central Sumatra and Indonesia. Plankton and detritus feeder, the important food items being planktonic animals and soft aquatic plants. Could possibly be bred in ponds. Fry generally collected from rivers. Grows to about 675 g in one year. Maximum length: 24 cm.
Puntius carnaticus (Jerdon)
Carnatic carp. (Cyprinidae). Rivers of south India. Cultivated in ponds in south India. Fry feed on phyto and zooplankton and aquatic insects. Adult consumes higher plants, filamentous algae, crustaceans, insects and small fish. Grows to 25–30 cm and 1.3 kg in one year. Does not breed in ponds. Spawning season in rivers: monsoon months.
Puntius gonionotus (Bleeker)
Syn. Puntius javanicus (Bleeker)
Tawes. (Cyprinidae). Rivers of Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam and transplanted to Sri Lanka. Cultivated in Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Able to survive in brackish waters up to salinity of 7 ppt. Food: aquatic vegetation. Column and surface feeder. Grows to 250–500 g in one year, in ponds. Production rate in ponds: up to 500 kg per ha. Spawns in rivers at the beginning of rainy season. Breeds in ponds when suddenly transferred into fresh water. In Indonesia special methods are adopted for spawning in ponds. Induced breeding by hypophysation has been successful.
Puntius orphoides (Cuvier & Valenciennes)
‘Mata mera’ (red eye). (Cyprinidae). Rivers and lakes in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Khmer. Cultivated in ponds in Indonesia. Grows to about 25 cm. Spawns when about 8 cm long and 8 months old. Breeds in ponds throughout the year if specific measures like provision of good supply of well-oxygenated water, suitable plants for attachment of eggs, etc. are taken. Fry feed on unicellular algae; young fish and adults on phyto and zooplankton, epiphytic vegetation and decayed parts of higher plants. Eagerly consumes artificial food.
Puntius sarana (Hamilton)
(Cyprinidae). Rivers of India, Burma and Thailand. Limited cultivation in ponds in India, Pakistan and Burma. Grows to about 30 cm.
Puntius schwanefeldii (Bleeker)
‘Lampai’. (Cyprinidae). Rivers of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Khmer and Vietnam. Cultivated in ponds in Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam and Japan. Food: planktonic and epiphytic organisms and fresh and decayed aquatic plants. Grows to about 35 cm. Matures at 15–20 cm length. Breeds and spawns occasionally without any special measures.
Pylodictis olivaris (Rafinesque)
Flathead catfish. (Ictaluridae). Rivers of North America. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in U.S.A. Fry and fingerlings cultured in troughs. Food: practically anything that can be ingested. Average weight: about 20 kg. The fish prefers slow moving, sluggish and mud-bottomed rivers.
Rhamdia guatemalensis (Günther)
Juilin. (Pimelodidae). Fresh waters in northern South America. Cultivated in ponds in Guatemala. Production rate reported to be 24–159 kg/ha.
Rhinichthys atratulus Hermann
Blacknose dace. (Cyprinidae). Lives in cold and clean water courses in north U.S.A. Cultured in U.S.A. as bait fish. Spawning in running waters during April and May. Artificially propagated eggs measure 3 mm in diameter after swelling.
Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton)
Grey mullet. (Mugilidae). Found in estuaries and fresh waters far above tidal influence in India, Pakistan and Burma. Cultivated in fresh and brackishwater impoundments in India. Fry feed on copepods and insects, while adults consume filamentous algae floating on water surface, along with the insects and molluscs adhering to them. In confined waters browsing habit is also reported. Not known as to whether the fish breeds in ponds. In nature, the breeding season (in fresh waters) is from May to September. Grows to 35–45 cm in three years.
Rutilus frisii kutum (Kamensky)
‘Kutum’. (Cyprinidae). Inhabits the Caspian Sea, mainly its southern region. Hatchery propagation and experimental culture in Azerbaidzhan (U.S.S.R.). Spawning migration into rivers takes place during February to April. Matures at four years.
Rutilus leuciscus rutilus (Linnaeus)
Dace. (Cyprinidae). River-lake fish cultivated in Belgium, France, Madagascar and Morocco. Stocked in rice fields in the latter two countries. Introduced in Poland for stocking natural waters.
Salmo aguabonita Jordan
Golden trout (of the west U.S.A.). (Salmonidae). Native to high mountain streams of California; has been transplanted to other western states in U.S.A. Cultivated in North America. Food: insects, larvae of insects, worms and spawn of other fishes. Grows to average weight of about 450 g. Generally inhabits clear water only and is a spring spawner.
Salmo clarki Richardson
Cutthroat trout. (Salmonidae). Inhabits waters from sea level to mountain lakes of altitude 3 000 m, in west America. Cultivated in North America. Food: insects, crustaceans, worms, small fish and salmon and trout eggs. Grows to average of 200–450 g in smaller streams and 1–3 kg in larger waters. Those with access to the ocean inclined to migrate to such seas. Spawning in spring or mid-summer. Fecundity: 3 000–6 000 or more.
Salmo gairdneri Richardson
Rainbow trout; steelhead. (Salmonidae). Native in rivers on the west coast of North America. Introduced into several countries. Cultivated in North America, Africa, Australia, Norway, Denmark, Tasmania, India, Sri Lanka, Japan, U.S.S.R., etc. Experimental culture (transplantation into sea) in Baltic Sea. Temperature tolerance in ponds: 14°C or less. Fry feed on zooplankton while juveniles and adults consume insects, worms, snails, crustaceans and small fish. Grows to 8 cm, 20 cm, 38 cm, 40 cm and 45 cm or more in the first five years respectively. Maximum length over 70 cm. Spawning takes place generally between early winter and beginning of summer, and is accompanied by at least some upstream migration. Nest dug by female and eggs covered with loose gravel. Artificial hatching in special hatcheries. Eyed eggs can be transported four or five days after the eyes appear, in wooden trays or other suitable containers. Fresh water/salt water culture reported to be more advantageous than purely in fresh water. Considered to be valuable addition in carp ponds in European countries.
Salmo letnica Karamen
(Salmonidae). Cultivated in high altitude waters in Morocco, for sport fishing.
Salmo salar Linnaeus
Atlantic salmon. (Salmonidae). Northern part of Atlantic Ocean. The so-called landlocked salmon is found in inland waters of New England states and New York, lakes of Karelia, Sweden, etc. Cultivation and artificial propagation in several countries like Canada, U.S.A., Norway, U.S.S.R., etc. Food of sea-run form: in river fry feed on insect larvae and older forms on benthonic fish; in sea, feeds mainly on fish. Different groups of migratory fish having varied characteristics have been distinguished. The sea-run form attains maturity in sea and migrates to spawning rivers; young fish remain in river for 1–5 years. Before entering sea, the fish undergoes many changes. The landlocked form ascends rivers flowing into lakes, for spawning, during October-November. Nest-like holes built by both the forms. Fecundity: average of 8 000–10 000.
Salmo trutta Linnaeus
Brown trout; salmon trout. (Salmonidae). Brook, river and lake fish, in European countries. Introduced into North America. India, New Zealand, Africa, etc. Cultivated in ponds in U.S.S.R., North America, Australia, Africa, New Zealand, etc. Artificial propagation for stocking streams at heights of more than 1 000 m above sea level, with maximum temperature of 20–22°C, in Indo-Pacific countries like India, Sri Lanka, Japan, Australia, etc. Food: small animals of all kinds. Larger specimens consume fishes and vegetable matter also. Spawns during October to January (in some cases in February and September also). Eggs deposited in crevices between stones and gravel. Artificial propagation in hatcheries by stripping. Grows to maximum length of over 1 m.
Salmo trutta trutta Linnaeus
Common trout. (Salmonidae). River-sea fish in Europe and northern Asia. Artificial propagation in U.S.S.R. and some European countries. The fish remains in fresh waters for three to seven winters, and feed chiefly on insects and insect larvae. In sea, feeds mainly on fish and crustaceans. The migration in river is usually very extended. Spawning occurs during October to December.
Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill)1
Brook trout. (Salmonidae). North American species, cultivated in U.S.A. and Canada. Food: smaller fishes, insects, worms, molluscs, crustaceans and even frogs. Grows to 8 cm, 15 cm, 22 cm, 30 cm, and 33 cm in the first five years respectively. Spawning takes place in the autumn, in shallows of headwater streams. Redd constructed by female and fertilized eggs covered with loose gravel. Eggs hatch in seven to eight weeks, depending on water temperature.
Salvelinus malma (Walbaum)
Mountain trout; Dolly Varden trout. (Salmonidae). Pacific coast of Asia; southern parts of Japan restricted to cold headwaters of rivers; Pacific slope of North America from Sacramento to Alaska. Landlocked freshwater river and stream fish cultivated in Japan and Alaska. Predatory fish. Autumn and winter spawner. Landlocked form spawns in streams and propagates freely. Ocean-run spawners migrate upstream and when spent, return to sea or if they are stream residents, drop back downstream. Grows to a length of 70 cm.
Salvelinus namaycush (Walbaum)
Lake trout. (Salmonidae). Fresh waters of northern portion of North America. Cultivated in Canada. Spawns on lake bottoms, with mounds of pebbles, stones or small boulders for the deposit of eggs. Eggs not covered. Sharp rocks make better spawning grounds.
Salvelinus sp.
(Salmonidae). Cultivated in Morocco for sport fishing.
Scardinius erythrophthalmus (Linnaeus)
Rudd. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of western Europe and the basins of the Baltic, Black, Caspian and Aral Seas (U.S.S.R.). Cultivated in Belgium and France. Inhabits clear sluggish or stagnant waters overgrown with vegetation. Larvae feed on zooplankton. Juveniles feed mainly on vegetation. Grows to 7 cm, 9 cm, 13 cm, 17 cm and 21 cm in the first five years respectively. Sexually mature at three years. Spawns during April to July. Fecundity: 96 000–232 000.
Sciaenops oscellata (Linnaeus)
Red drum. (Sciaenidae). Seas and estuaries of North America. Cultivated in ponds in South Carolina, U.S.A. Able to live in brackish waters up to salinity of 20 ppt. Most adaptable to pond habitat in the region. Predatory fish.
Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill)
Creek chub. (Cyprinidae). Found in relatively calm waters in U.S.A., from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic. Cultivated in U.S.A. since considered excellent for catching pike. Spawning between April and June in the gravel beds of running waters. Artificial fertilization by hypophysation.
Seriola purpurascens Temminck & Schlegel
Rudder fish. (Carangidae). Widely distributed on each side of Japan, to China (Taiwan) and east coast of Korea. Small-scale cultivation in Japan. Grows to 1 m or more.
Seriola quiniqueradiata Temminck & Schlegel
Yellow tail (North Pacific). (Carangidae). North Pacific seas; Japan coast. Cultivated in Japan, in Seto Island sea areas.
Serranochromis angusticeps (Boulenger)
Syn. Paratilapia angusticeps Boulenger
(Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Angola, Bechuanaland and Zambesi, and Lake Bangwela, in Africa. Cultivated in ponds in Central East Africa. Grows to 25 cm. Feeds mainly on insects. Nest constructed by male. Breeding from August to January. Mouth breeder; hatching inside the mouth of the female. 20–30 cm fish may produce 200–1 000 eggs at a time. Matures at about 20 cm length in reservoirs, but in ponds fish of smaller size may be mature.
Serranochromis macrocephala (Boulenger)
Syn. Paratilapia macrocephala Boulenger
(Cichlidae). Lake Mweru, Luapula river, etc. in Africa. Cultivated in ponds in Central East Africa. Grows to 33 cm. Other details same as for S. angusticeps.
Serranochromis robustus (Günther)
Syn. Pelmatochromis robustus Günther
(Cichlidae). Occurs in lower reaches of rivers and off rocks in open waters of Lake Nyasa (Africa). Cultivated in ponds in Central East Africa. In Zaire the fish is cultivated for Tilapia control. The species is faster growing than the other three species of the same genus. Other details same as for S. angusticeps.
Serranochromis thumbergi (Castelnau)
Syn. Paratilapia thumbergi Castelnau
(Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Central and East Africa. Cultivated in ponds in the same region. In Zaire cultured for Tilapia control. Other details same as for S. angusticeps.
Siluris glanis Linnaeus
Sheatfish; common catfish. (Siluridae). Rivers, lakes and brackish waters in basin of the Black, Caspian and Aral Seas, and east of the Rhine river in U.S.S.R. Also occurs in the eastern part of the Mediterranean. Cultivated in Hungary, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. Able to tolerate salinity up to 14 ppt. Small fish, frogs and tadpoles form the main food of the species. 10–20 days old young ones develop cannibalistic habits. Grows to 5–6 cm in nursery ponds during 30–35 days. Nest builder. Spawning takes place late in the evening and at night. Artificial hatching crates have been successful. 5 000–7 000 fingerlings of the same size can be stocked for every 100 m2 water area.
Siniperca chuatsi (Basilewsky)
Mandarin fish; Chinese perch. (Epinephelidae). Fresh waters of China and Amur region. Cultivated as extraneous fish in China. Adults feed on fish and crustaceans.
Solea solea (Linnaeus)
Common sole. (Soleidae). Occurs in seas along the coast of Europe from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. Experimental mariculture in United Kingdom. Feeds on crustaceans, molluscs and small fish. Reaches 61 cm in length. Usually lives at depths of 20–60 m. Spawning in February to August. Fecundity: about 150 000. Incubation period at water temperature of 9–10°C is about 10 days.
Sparus auratus Linnaeus
Syn. Chrysophrys aurata Cuvier & Valenciennes
Gilt-head bream. (Sparidae). Mediterranean, Black Sea, southern coast of England. Cultivated in northern Adriatic Sea. Does not breed in ponds. Either young ones are trapped in ponds or fry stocked. Experimental induced breeding in France and Italy.
Squaliobarbus curriculus (Richardson)
Barbel chub. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of China, Vietnam, Laos and U.S.S.R. Also reported from rivers in western Korea. Cultivated in ponds in association with other cyprinoid fishes in Vietnam. Hardy fish, able to stand transportation over long distances. Column feeder, consuming zooplankton during fry stage and vegetable and animal food items during later stages. Does not breed in ponds.
Stephanolepis cirrhifer Temminck & Schlegel
File fish; porky; Kawahagi. (Monacanthidae). Occurs from Japan coast to East China Sea and southern Korea. Spawning season probably extends from the end of June to August. Grows to about 25 cm. Experimental culture in Japan.
Stizostedion (Lucioperca) lucioperca (Linnaeus)
Pike-perch. (Percidae). Rivers and basins of the Baltic, Black, Caspian and Aral Seas. Cultivated in European countries like Yugoslavia, Hungary, East Germany, etc., Morocco and U.S.S.R. Lives in rivers, clear lakes and also in saline waters. Fry feed on zooplankton and adults on fish. Grows to 12–25 cm and 30–100 g in one year, 30–40 cm and 200–500 g in two years and 37–55 cm and 500–1 500 g in three years. Breeds in ponds when nest-making materials are provided. One nest and one spawning pair may be stocked for every 2–5 m2 basin surface. About 1 000–2 000 eggs can be stocked per ha. Induced breeding by hypophysation.
Stizostedion vitreum vitreum (Mitchill)
Yellow pike perch; walleye; yellow walleye. (Percidae). Freshwater lakes in North America. Cultivated in ponds in U.S.A. and Canada. Artificial propagation by stripping. Food: small fishes, worms, crayfish, crustaceans, insects and frogs. Grows to 10 cm, 21 cm, 30 cm, 37 cm and 45 cm in the first five years respectively. Spring spawner in lakes and rivers. In rivers upstream migration and in lakes shoreward migration take place for breeding. Extremely prolific breeder, an average fish laying 50 000 to 60 000 eggs.
1 Hybrid of S. fontinalis and S. namaycush (Walbaum) reported to be successful for cultivation.
Tetradon fahaca Linnaeus
(Tetraodontidae). Nile, Chad Basin, Senegambia and Niger (Africa). Experimental cultivation in Cameroon for Tilapia control, but the results are reported to be poor.
Thymallus arcticus (Pallas)
Arctic grayling. (Thymallidae). Fresh waters of Siberia (U.S.S.R.) and North America (mostly abundant in Alaska). Cultivated in some waters of Yellowstone country (U.S.A.). Food: aquatic insects, invertebrates and some small fishes. Spawns in early spring. Sexually mature at 4–5 years. Fecundity: 5 000–10 000.
Thymallus thymallus (Linnaeus)
Grayling. (Thymallidae). Fresh waters of Europe, Asia and North America. Cultured in Yugoslavia. Primarily a river fish and spawns in spring from March to May when water temperature is about 10°C. Sexual maturity at two years for males and three years for females. Artificial feeds given include liver, spleen and cultured plankton.
Thynnichthys sandkhol (Sykes)
Sandkhol carp. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of south India, Burma and Malaysia. Cultivated in ponds in south India. Food: 80 percent of Myxophyceae, Chlorophyceae and Bacillariophyceae and 20 percent Protozoa, Rotifera and Crustacea. Fast growing fish, attaining 45–60 cm and 0.9–1.4 kg in one year. Does not breed in ponds. Mature when about 30 cm long, in the first year of life. Spawns during June to September.
Tilapia andersonii Castelnau1
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Kafue, Upper Zambesi, Okavango, Angola, Congo, Gabon, etc. in Africa. Cultivated in ponds in Congo, Rhodesia, Zambia, etc. Bottom feeder, consuming mainly algae. Grows to about 200–225 g in one year in ponds. Fecundity: 300–700. Generally stocked in combination with other species of the genus.
Tilapia aurea (Steindachner)2
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Uganda (Africa). Cultivated in freshwater ponds in Uganda. Experimental cultivation in brackishwater ponds in Israel. Introduced in U.S.A.
2 Hybrid of T. aurea × T. nilotica (L.) under experimental cultivation in Uganda
Tilapia christyi Boulenger
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Congo. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in Zambia. Grows to 18 cm length.
Tilapia esculenta Graham
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Lake Nyasa. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in Tanzania (Africa).
Tilapia flavomarginata Boulenger
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Lake Ngami district, Angola, Congo, Gabon, etc. in Africa. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in Gabon.
Tilapia galilaea (Artedi)
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Galilee and Jordan to Nigeria (Nile and Senegal) in Africa. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Morocco, Togo and Israel. Phytoplankton feeder. Maximum size: 35 cm and 800 g. Average table fish size: 20 cm and 150 g. Buccal incubation by female.
Tilapia heudelotii Dumeril Syn. Tilapia macrocephala (Bleeker)
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters in Senegal to Gabon. Introduced in Florida (U.S.A.). Cultivated in brackishwater ponds in Nigeria and Tanzania for experimental purposes. Male normally broods eggs and young in the mouth.
Tilapia hornorum Trewavas1
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Zanzibar. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in Java and Malaysia. Introduced in U.S.A.
1 Hybrid of T. hornorum × T. mossambica Peters or T. nilotica have given all-male F1 generation.
Tilapia leucosticta Trewavas2
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of western Uganda. Cultivated in ponds in Uganda and Kenya. Feeds on phytoplankton and bottom deposits formed largely from the decomposition of phytoplankton. Sexually mature at about six months age and 200 g weight. Succeeding generations mature at smaller sizes. Maternal mouth brooder.
Tilapia macrochir Boulenger3
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Central Africa and Bangouelo and Moero Lakes. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in several regions of Africa. Young ones feed on zoo and phytoplankton. Above 8 cm length, feeds entirely on plankton and algae growing on larger plants. Maximum length 40 cm and weight 1.2 kg. Grows to 6–7 cm in six weeks, 14 cm and 50 g in 6 months. The rate of growth then decreases slowly, 29-22 cm and 150 g at 10–11 months, and thereafter decreases rapidly. Male grows more quickly than the female, in a proportion of 1.4:1, because of the buccal incubation by the female. Spawning occurs every 5 weeks or so in warm areas during October to March. 3 000–4 000 eggs laid by average female per year.
3 Hybrid of T. macrochir × T. nilotica under experimental cultivation in Cameroon and Ivory Coast.
Tilapia marginata (Heckel)
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Experimental cultivation in freshwater ponds in Cameroon.
Tilapia melanopleura Dumeril
Syn. T. rendalli (Boulenger)
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of West Africa, from Senegal to Angola. Introduced into several countries. Cultivated in several countries of Africa, Malaysia, Vietnam, etc. Experimental cultivation in brackishwater ponds in Nigeria. The species dies at temperatures below 12–13°C and reproduces at temperatures above 21–23°C. Known to feed exclusively on plants and hence useful for biological control of weeds in fish ponds. Grows to 5–6 cm in six weeks and 14 cm and 50 g in six months. Under culture conditions grows to about 20 cm and 150 g in 10–11 months. Fecundity: 5 000–6 000. Spawns throughout the year in some areas but only four times a year in other places. Buccal incubation of eggs is not reported.
Tilapia mossambica Peters1
Tilapia; Java tilapia; Mozambique mouth breeder. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of East Africa to Natal. Introduced into several countries. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in several countries of Africa, Java, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India, Vietnam, etc. Cultivated also in brackishwater ponds in Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, etc. Omnivorous feeder, consuming a wide variety of plants and animals. Small fry feed mostly on plankton. Males are reported to grow quicker. Average growth to 850 g in fresh waters and 450 g in brackish waters has been reported under good farming conditions. Spawning commences from the age of two to three months. Number of spawnings per year varies with environmental conditions. In brackish waters spawning is generally inhibited. The female takes the fertilized eggs into her mouth.
Tilapia multifasciata (Günther)
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Lake Bosumtwe (Africa). Cultivated in freshwater ponds in Cameroon, Ivory Coast, etc. Grows to about 17 cm length.
Tilapia nigra (Günther)2
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Kenya and Uganda. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in Congo, Kenya, Uganda and Mozambique. Omnivorous feeder consuming algae and debris, but not higher aquatic vegetation. Maximum growth to 38 cm and 1 kg. Experimental work on monosex culture in Kenya has showed growth to be very much effected by seasonal variations in water temperature.
Tilapia nilotica (Linnaeus)1
Nile tilapia; Nile mouth breeder. (Cichlidae). Galilee and Jordan to Nigeria (Nile and Senegal) in Africa. Cultivated in freshwater ponds in several regions of Africa, Israel, Thailand and Japan. Omnivorous feeder, with preference for zoo-organisms. Effective in controlling Pithophora sp. and Najas guadalupensis. At Alabama production up to 4 483 kg/ha has been obtained. Buccal incubation by female. Grows to 50 cm and 2.5 kg.
Tilapia shirana Boulenger
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Africa and Madagascar. Experimental culture.
Tilapia sparrmani A. Smith
Tilapia; peacock cichlid. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of southern Africa from Angola to Katanga. Cultivated in Central East Africa and South Africa (as food for black bass). Omnivorous and phytophagous. Grows to about 20 cm and 150 g. Non-buccal incubation; fry are guarded by male. Breeds at length of about 8 cm.
Tilapia tholloni (Sauvage)
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Upper Ogowe, Chiloango, Lower Congo, etc. in Africa. Cultivated in Cameroon. Grows to about 18 cm in length.
Tilapia variabilis Boulenger
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Lake Victoria (Africa). Introduced into lakes and reservoirs in East Africa. Experimental cultivation in Lake Victoria region and East Africa. Omnivorous feeder (including algae, but not higher aquatic vegetation). Grows to 30 cm and 500 g. Buccal incubation by female.
Tilapia zilli (Gervais)2
Syn. Tilapia zilli guineensis (Bleeker)
Tilapia. (Cichlidae). Lake of Galilee, Jordan, Sahara, Lower Egypt, Lakes Victoria, Rodolphe, Tchad, Nigeria and Gold Coast in Africa. Cultivated in several regions of Africa, Malaysia and Japan. Phytophagous (including higher aquatic vegetation). Substratum spawner. Breeds at about 25 cm length. The species is not a mouth breeder and the eggs placed on the substratum are guarded by the male and the female. Grows to about 35 cm and 800 g. Particularly important in the control of softer aquatic vegetation and possibly in preventing the re-establishment of infestations controlled by other means. More desirable than T. melanopleurai as it is less prolific.
2 Hybrid of T. zilli × T. melanopleura under experimental cultivation in Uganda.
Tinca tinca (Linnaeus)
Tench. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters of Europe and western Siberia. Introduced for cultivation in India, Indonesia, Japan and Australia, has been raised in farm ponds in California (U.S.A.). Artificial propagation in U.S.S.R. hatcheries. Feeds on diatoms, blue-green and filamentous algae, vegetable debris, molluscs, worms and insects. In Europe growth to 10–20 g, 50–100 g and 150–300 g in the first three years has been reported. In India growth up to 113 g in one year has been obtained. Spawns at 16°C or more in ponds. Fecundity: 200 000 eggs per 450 g of body weight. Considered to be suitable for cultivation along with carps, in ponds.
Tor tambroides (Bleeker)
Syn. Labeobarbus tambroides (Bleeker)
‘Tambra’. (Cyprinidae). Freshwaters of Indonesia, Thailand, etc. Cultivated in ponds in Indonesia. Food: phyto and zooplankton, decayed higher plants and remnants of worms and insects. Does not breed in confined waters. Ascends rivers to lay eggs at the mouths of small tributaries, which the young subsequently ascend. Eggs 2–3 mm, reddish.
Trachinotus carolinus (Linnaeus)
Pompano; common pompano. (Carangidae). South Atlantic and Gulf coasts of U.S.A., and Brazil to Cape Cod. Experimental cultivation in the coastal areas of southern U.S.A., Able to tolerate up to freshwater conditions if the salinity is decreased gradually. Also able to withstand wide variations in pH. Temperature tolerance: 12–38°C. Food: molluscs, softer crustaceans and juveniles of fishes. Increases in length of about 25 mm per month have been reported. Mature fish move into offshore waters and spawn in areas where currents will carry the young to coastal waters. Artificial propagation by HCG injection reported to be successful. Fecundity: 400 000–600 000.
Trichogaster pectoralis (Regan)
Sepat siam; snake-skinned gourami. (Osphronemidae). Fresh waters of Thailand, Khmer and Vietnam. Introduced into several Asian countries. Cultivated in Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Japan and Hong Kong. Cage culture in Thailand. Larvae and young fry feed on plankton. Adult feed on phyto and zooplankton. Grows to 7–9 cm in three months, 10–12 cm in six months and 16–18 cm in 12 months. Matures when about seven months old. Bubble nest, about 5 cm in diameter built by the male. Fecundity: 7 000–8 000, but a nest seldom yields more than 4 000 larvae. Breeds in rice fields and in ponds with appropriate measures. Approximate production in manured ponds: 250–350 kg/ha per year.
Trichogaster trichopterus (Pallas)
Spotted gourami; sepat djawa; three-spot gourami; blue gourami. (Osphronemidae). Fresh waters of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Khmer and Vietnam. Cultivated as coarse fish and for ornamental purposes, in Vietnam. Able to tolerate slightly brackish waters. Larvae feed on phytoplankton and detritus, while fry and adults consume phyto and zooplankton, epiphytic micro-organisms and decayed algae and higher plants. Matures when about three months old. Male fish builds a floating nest from pieces of plants joined together with foam bubbles. Spawns every month.
Tylochromis lateralis (Dumeril)
Syn. Chromis lateralis (Dumeril)
(Cichlidae). Fresh waters of Senegal (Africa). Experimental cultivation in Zaire.
Vimba vimba (Linnaeus)
Vimba; ‘syrt’. (Cyprinidae). Fresh waters in basins of North and Baltic Seas from the Elbe river in the east and basins of Black and Caspian Seas. Cultivated in middle and southern states of U.S.S.R. and Poland. Semi-migratory species. Young ones feed on planktonic crustaceans and adults on benthic invertebrates like molluscs, worms, insects, etc. During spring enters rivers, with mature eggs in order to spawn. Spawning takes place in June and July. Very sensitive to purity of water. When water is turbid, spawning is halted and the eggs and larvae die. Fecundity low. No parental care. Existence of ‘homing instinct’ indicated. Attains length of about 35 cm.
Wallago attu (Schneider)
Freshwater ‘shark’. (Siluridae). Freshwater river fish in India, Pakistan, Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Khmer and Sri Lanka. Cultivated in confined waters like reservoirs, swamps, marshes, etc. in India, Pakistan and Burma. Extremely voracious carnivore. Fry feed on fishes, insects, crustaceans, and algae. Adults feed almost exclusively on aquatic animals, chiefly fish. Spawns during monsoons in inundated marginal areas of rivers. Grows to lengths over 50 cm. Not suitable for cultivation in ponds.
