One of the particular features of the 1973 fishery census was that the census data were fully analysed by a team which was organized by staff from both the Central Bureau of Statistics and the Directorate General of Fisheries. The analysis of the census data was started in January 1977 and was finished by the end of June 1978. As the population size of brackishwater fish culture, i.e., the total number of brackishwater culture households, was confirmed much earlier than that of marine fishery, the analysis was made first for brackishwater culture.
As seen in the tabulation programmes for both the marine fishery and brackishwater culture, all statistical tables are systematically grouped into nine sections and analysis was done according to such an order. The present section gives only major findings. However, those who are interested in seeing the detail may wish to refer to the following publications:
Brackishwater Culture in Indonesia, January 1978
- Analysis of the 1973 Brackishwater Fish Culture Census -
Marine Fishery in Indonesia, December 1978
- Analysis of the 1973 Marine Fishery Census -
Both publications were issued by the Central Bureau of Statistics.
To shorten the descriptions hereunder, the following abbreviations were used:
| RTP/PP1 : | Marine fishing establishment and fishing operator's household |
| RTBP1 : | Marine fishing labourer's household |
| BWFC : | Brackishwater fish culture |
| Holding2 : | A synonym of BWFC household |
1 These are abbreviations of Indonesian words, “Rumah Tannga Perikanan” and “Rumah Tannga Buruh Perikanan”
2 “Holding” is a technical term proposed in FAO World Agriculture Census Programme. As a BWFC household is similar to agriculture households in type, this word is used herein
1. BASIC ECONOMIC STRUCTURE AND PRODUCTIVITY
1.1 Size of marine fishery and its uneven distribution
Throughout Sumatra, Java and Bali the census identified 191 914 fishing establishments (RTP/PP), 66 861 fishing labourer's households (RTBP) and 346 200 fishermen.
Throughout the three islands, the total catch estimated through the census is 656.8 thousand tons or Rp. 42.0 billion. However, these production figures, are, to some extent, underestimated.
The census revealed a very uneven distribution of RTP/PP along the coast of three islands. Of the 191 914 RTP/PP, 110 640 RTP/PP or 57.7 percent are distributed on the north coast of Java and 36 903 RTP/PP or 19.2 percent on the Malacca Strait coast of Sumatra.
The mechanization of fishing boats progressed more in Sumatra, with 62.2 percent of the total outboard-powered boats and 75.1 percent of the total inboard-powered boats being distributed on Sumatra. As a result, Sumatra produces 51.0 percent of the total catch throughout the three islands in spite of the fact that the number of RTP/PP on this island is only 33.1 percent of the total.
1.2 Dual structure of the marine fishery
In spite of the fact that the small scale fishery comprises 188 649 RTP/PP or 98.3 percent of the total, owing to its extremely low productivity, it produces only 62.4 percent of the catch in quantity or 70.1 percent of the catch in value. However, the medium scale fishery which comprises only 3 265 RTP/PP or 1.7 percent of the total, produces 37.6 percent of the catch in quantity.
Owing to a great difference in the progress of fishing boat mechanization, such a basic economic structure of the marine fishery is different for Sumatra and Java. In Sumatra, owing to better progress of boat mechanization. the small scale fishery produces only 38.1 percent of the catch in quantity or 53.1 percent of the catch in value, in spite of the fact that the small scale RTP/PP are 95.6 percent of the total number of RTP/PP. Whereas, in Java the small scale fishery, which is 99.6 percent of the total number of RTP/PP, produces 87.2 percent of the catch in quantity or 82.6 percent of the catch in value.
1.3 Manpower input
The employment of hired fishermen occurs even for the small scale fishery using nonpowered boats of small size. This is due to an excess of labour supply against existing job opportunities.
An excess of labour supply is more serious in Java. Thus, throughout almost all sizes of management, the average number of hired fishermen per RTP/PP in Java is double that of RTP/PP in Sumatra.
1.4 Labourer's productivity
The labourer's productivity is derived by dividing the total catch by the total number of fishermen obtained by household approach, which does not involve any double counting.
Throughout the three islands the labourer's productivity, i.e., the average catch per fisherman per year, is 1.94 tons or Rp. 124 000.
However, the labourer's productivity in Sumatra is quite high, being 2.94 tons or Rp. 159 000, as compared to 1.48 tons or Rp. 111 000 for Java. This is due to less manpower input in Sumatra as analysed in (ii) of 1.3 above.
1.5 Comparative study on productivity among different sizes of management
Productivities hereunder were obtained, for every size of management, by dividing the total catch by the number of RTP/PP.
There is a general trend that average catch per RTP/PP, fishing boat and fishermen steadily increases with the enlargement of the size of management.
However, a sharp increase of average catch per RTP/PP and per fishing boat is seen with the mechanization of fishing boats, even by outboard engines. This is due mainly to the fact that the number of fishing days is prolonged with the mechanization of boats.
The average catch per RTP/PP with nonpowered boats seldom exceeds Rp. 500 000 per annum. However, such an average for RTP/PP with powered boats well exceeds Rp. 1 million.
2. ECONOMIC NATURE OF FISHING ESTABLISHMENTS
2.1 Type of management
“Own account”, i.e., an individual management, is the most dominant type of management, being 95. 7 percent of the total.
“Partnership” and “Cooperative”, which are supposed to be the ideal types of management for the enlargement of the size of management, are rarely developed, being 2.7 percent and 1.6 percent of the total respectively. Fishing companies are extremely rare.
2.2 Ownership of fishing boats
The majority of fishing boats are either individually or jointly owned by RTP/PP. Thus, throughout the three islands the number of RTP/PP who rent a fishing boat is only 4 percent of the total.
The only exception is the east coast of Sumatra, where the number of RTP/PP who rent a fishing boat accounts for 12.8 percent of the total.
2.3 Fishing intensity of fishing establishments
The number of months engaged in fishing per RTP/PP is greatly prolonged with the mechanization of fishing boats even by outboard engines. In the case of RTP/PP with nonpowered boats, those with less than six fishing months and those with more than seven fishing months are about half and half. Whereas, in the case of RTP/PP with powered boats of any size, the number of RTP/PP with seven fishing months and above accounts for about 75 percent of the total.
2.4 Fish processing employed by fishing establishments
Throughout the three islands the number of RTP/PP who engage in their own fishing and also in their own fish processing is very few, being only 17.0 percent of the total.
In general, small scale RTP/PP do not become involved much in fish processing. Whereas, fish processing activities of medium scale RTP/PP are fairly high, especially on the Malacca Strait coast and the east coast of Sumatra.
The types of fish processing employed are mostly traditional ones, in which salting and drying are most dominant.
2.5 Payment system for hired fishermen
Throughout the three islands “the production sharing system” is the one most popularly used, being 70.6 percent of the total. This is followed by “either fixed wage or production sharing system” and “fixed wage”.
However, in Sumatra the payment in “fixed wage” is relatively frequent, being 15.5 percent of the total.
3. FISH MARKETING CHANNELS MAINLY IN USE BY RTP/PP
3.1 Sumatra
The most dominant types of marketing channels in use in Sumatra are “Specific dealer” and “Any dealers”, being 46.4 percent and 22.7 percent of the total, respectively. This is due to an extremely poor development of fish auction markets in Sumatra.
On the Malacca Strait and the east coast of Sumatra no less than half of both small and medium scale RTP/PP use “Specific dealer” as their main marketing channel. They are apparently exploited by specific dealers.
3.2 Java
The types of marketing channels most popularly used in Java are “Fish auction market” and “Directly to consumer”, being 24.7 percent and 39.2 percent of the total, respectively.
The extent of the use of fish auction markets by RTP/PP greatly differs among four provinces, being 26.9 percent for Jakarta, 39.6 percent for West Java, 56.8 percent for Central Java and only 5.6 percent for East Java.
The percentages shown indicate an extremely slow development of fish auction markets in East Java. As a result, in East Java the use of “Specific dealer” and “Directly to consumer” is quite high. The majority of the RTP/PP who sell their catch directly to consumers appears in this province.
A “Fish auction market” is mainly utilized by the larger size of RTP/PP. As a result, 40 percent of the total catch in Java is sold through “Fish auction markets”. However, the catch sold through fish auction markets greatly fluctuates among provinces, being 40 percent for Jakarta, 61.3 percent for West Java, 84,5 percent for Central Java and 16.5 percent for West Java.
There is a general trend that “Any dealer” is mainly utilized by the small size of RTP/PP. Whereas, “Specific dealer” are more utilized by large size of RTP/PP. In other words, “Specific dealer” is more involved in handling catch taken by the large sized RTP/PP.
Selling catch “Directly to consumer” is mainly practised by the small size RTP/PP.
3.3 Price of catch in Java
Throughout Java the highest price of catch is realized when the catch is sold through auction markets. On the contrary, the lowest price of catch is realized when the catch is sold directly to the consumer.
The price of catch realized through “Any dealer” or “Specific dealer” is in between the price realized at auction markets and that realized when the catch is directly sold to the consumer.
The overall average price of catch in Java sharply declines toward the east of Java. As a result, in spite of the fact that out of the total catch in Java, East Java produces 55.6 percent in quantity, it produces only 38.7 percent in value. This may imply the lower income of small scale RTP/PP in East Java.
4. FISHING BOATS
4.1 Size distribution of fishing boats
Owing to slower progress in fishing boat mechanization, the majority of fishing boats are still nonpowered, being some 168 000 or 95.5 percent of the total. The number of outboard-powered boats and inboard-powered boats is only 2 468 and 5 437 or 1.4 percent and 3.1 percent of the total, respectively.
The percentage size composition of nonpowered boats throughout the three islands is 55.4 percent for small, 34.2 percent for medium and 10.4 percent for large. In Java more large sizes of nonpowered boats are seen than in Sumatra.
The size of inboard-powered boats in Sumatra is generally smaller than in Java. In Sumatra inboard-powered boats of less than 5 gross tons are dominant, whereas in Java, inboard-powered boats of 5 to 10 gross gons and 10 to 20 gross tons are dominant.
4.2 Type of fishing gear employed by powered boats
The type of fishing gear mainly employed by outboard-powered boats are “payang” (boat seine), drift gillnet and hook and lines. It may be noteworthy that these gears are those which are traditionally employed by nonpowered boats.
A variety of fishing gear is employed by inboard-powered boats. However, the types of gear most popularly in use are drift gillnet, otter trawl and purse seine.
4.3 Increasing trend of fishing boats
Judging from average age and recruitment ratio of fishing boats, the following are noted. The recruitment ratio is a ratio of the number of boats increased during the past one year to the total number of boats.
The average age of nonpowered boats throughout the three islands is 5.5 years, and the recruitment ratio of boat is 9.4 percent. Judging from these figures, in general, nonpowered boats do not show an increasing trend.
The average age of outboard-powered boats throughout the three islands is only 2.7 years and the recruitment ratio is 16.2 percent. Judging from these figures, outboard-powered boats have a clear increasing trend.
The average age of inboard-powered boats throughout the three islands is only 3.6 years. Since substantial boat mechanization with inboard engines took place from about 1970, the recruitment ratio of 11.6 percent at the three islands level could be considered as an actual increase of inboard-powered boats.
5. FISHERIES LOANS AND FISHERIES INVESTMENT
5.1 Fisheries loans
In terms of the number of RTP/PP, a private loan is utilized much more than a public loan. Throughout the three islands, the number of RTP/PP who realized fisheries loans was some 43 000 or 22.6 percent of the total. However, the number of RTP/PP who realized public loans was only 6 770 or 3.5 percent of the total number of RTP/PP.
In terms of the amount of loans granted, the public loan plays a fairly important role, providing Rp. 825 million. This accounts for 32.1 percent of the total amount of loans granted. Out of three sources of public loans, bank loans mainly from Bank Rakyat Indonesia plays a leading role, providing Rp. 762 million or 92 percent of the total amount of public loans.
Public loans, particularly from banks, are more in use in Java than in Sumatra. On the Malacca Strait coast and the east coast of Sumatra the use of fish dealer's loans is prevailing, whereas in Java, loans from relatives are more frequently used.
With the exception of bank loans, the average size of public and private loans of any source is quite small, being around Rp. 50 000. However, the average size of a bank loan is quite high, being Rp. 240 000. This may imply that the bank loan is mainly used for capital investment, whereas any other loan is used for running costs.
5.2 Fisheries investment
The total amount invested for the acquisition of the hulls of boats, engines and fishing gear amounted to Rp. 4 898 million, of which Rp. 4 228 million was new investment.
Of the Rp. 4 228 million for new investments, the amounts invested for the hulls of boats, engines and fishing gear were Rp. 1 534 million (36.4 percent), Rp. 667 million (15.8 percent) and Rp. 2 027 million (47.9 percent), respectively.
When it is assumed that a bank loan is mainly used for the acquisition of capital assets such as the hull of the boat and engine, it can be said that the bank loan was able to provide about 35 percent of the amount needed for these two assets.
6. COSTS AND EARNINGS
6.1 Total sales
The average total sale per RTP/PP steadily increases with the enlargement of the size of management. However, a sharp increase in total sales occurs with the use of even an outboard-powered boat.
For any size of management, the average total sale per RTP/PP in Java is larger than that in Sumatra. One of the reasons may be the generally higher price of fish in Java.
6.2 Total operational cost
The total operational cost per RTP/PP also steadily increases with the enlargement of the size of management. However, owing to a high increase in material costs, the total operational cost sharply increases with the use of a powered boat.
Labour cost
Throughout all sizes of management, labour costs which include food provided for the crew comprise more than 50 percent of the total operational cost. However, in the case of RTP/PP with nonpowered boats, the labour cost comprises around 80 percent of the total operational cost.
Throughout all sizes of management the average labour cost in Java is higher than in Sumatra. In the case of small scale RTP/PP, the average labour cost in Java is nearly double that in Sumatra. This is due to the use of more hired fishermen in Java.
It may be logical to assume that, when the fishing is undertaken mainly by household members, the mechanization of fishing boats should reduce the labour cost. However, such a phenomenon is not clearly seen.
The food cost for a medium scale fishery is not a small amount, being about 30 percent of the total labour cost.
Material cost
In the case of RTP/PP without boats and with nonpowered boats the cost for fishing gear is the major material cost, being about 97 percent of the total material cost.
Whereas, in the case of RTP/PP with powered boats, the material cost is mainly composed of fuel, oil, ice and fishing gear. Of these cost items, the cost of fuel and oil is about 50 percent and 10 percent of the total material cost, respectively.
In the case of RTP/PP with outboard powered boats, the cost for fuel is especially high, being 80 percent of the total material cost. This is due to the high price of fuel (petrol) used for outboard engines.
Ice is seldom used by small scale RTP/PP. In the case of medium scale RTP/PP, the cost for ice is quite significant, being an appreciable 18 percent of the total material cost.
6.3 Gross profit
The following gross profit figures were obtained by subtracting the total operational cost from the total sale.
The size of the gross profit per RTP/PP increases with the enlargement of the size of management. The size of the gross profit for RTP/PP without boats and with nonpowered boats seldom exceeds Rp. 300 000. However, with the use of even outboard-powered boats the size of the gross profit sharply increases, exceeding Rp. 500 000. Furthermore, with the use of inboard-powered boats of 20 gross ton and above, the gross profit exceeds Rp. 3 million.
The gross profit of RTP/PP with nonpowered boats of small and medium size in Java is slightly smaller than that in Sumatra, in spite of the fact that the total sales of these RTP/PP in Java is larger than that in Sumatra. This is due to higher labour costs in Java.
7. SOCIOECONOMIC NATURE OF FISHING HOUSEHOLDS
7.1 Extent of dependency on the marine fishery
Throughout the three islands the dependency of RTP on the marine fishery is quite high, the number of RTP whose income is solely or mainly from fishery being 84.4 percent of the total.
On the Malacca Strait coast, on the east coast of Sumatra and on the north coast of Java, the dependency of RTP on the marine fishery is particularly high.
The percentage number of RTBP who are “Part time, minor” is slightly less than that of RTP. This means that RTBP depend more on the fishery than RTP, although the actual income of RTBP might be much lower than that of RTP.
7.2 Living level of fishing households in terms of monthly household expenditure
The living level of RTP seems to be quite low; throughout the three islands the number of RTP whose monthly household expenditure is below Rp. 10 000 is 62.8 percent. The living level of RTP in Sumatra seems to be much better than that in Java; the number of RTP/PP whose monthly household expenditure is less than Rp. 10 000 being 40.3 percent for Sumatra as compared with 73.0 percent for Java.
Throughout all the coasts, the living level of RTP on the Malacca Strait coast is the highest, RTP whose monthly household expenditure is less than RP 10 000 being only 34.6 percent of the total.
The living level of RTP in terms of monthly household expenditure greatly improves with the use of powered boats. This is particularly seen in Java and is due to the sharp increase of gross profit as clarified in 6.3 above.
The living level of RTBP in terms of monthly expenditure is lower than that of RTP. The living level of RTBP in Sumatra is also better than that in Java.
7.3 Living level of fishing households in terms of possession of durable goods
The census surveyed the possession of radio, TV set and bicycle as an index to study the living level of RTP and RTBP.
The number of RTP who are not in possession of any of the above durable consumer's goods is 42.0 percent for Sumatra and 61.1 percent for Java. This again reveals that the living level of RTP in Sumatra is generally better than that in Java.
Throughout the three islands, the number of RTP who are in possession of radio sets is only 33.3 percent of the total. This means that about two-thirds of the marine fishing households have very little means of knowing what is happening outside their own community.
8. SOCIOECONOMIC NATURE OF FISHERMEN
8.1 The size of fishing population and fishermen
Throughout the three islands, the total number of household members of RTP and RTBP who depend for their livelihood on the marine fishery accounts for some 1 243 000.
The average number of household members per household is 5.0 persons for RTP and 4.8 persons for RTBP, which is slightly lower than the average number of household members of 5.25 persons in a rural area.
The average number of fishermen per household is 1.4 persons for both RTP and RTBP. However, the average number of fishermen per RTBP in Sumatra is quite high, being 1.6 persons as compared with 1.2 persons for Java.
8.2 Sex ratio of fishermen
Due to the nature of work in the marine fishery, which is physically hard, the number of female fishermen is very few, being only 4.4 percent of the total throughout the three islands.
8.3 Age composition
Throughout the three islands the age composition of fishermen seems to be getting older. Out of the whole labour force, the number of persons who are 30 years old and above is 59.6 percent, whereas, the corresponding percentages of RTP and RTBP fishermen are 67.5 percent and 62.6 percent, respectively.
The percentage of fishermen who are 30 years old and under is much smaller than the corresponding percentage in agriculture, manufacturing and even the whole labour force. This is particularly true for RTP fishermen in Java and suggests the outflow of some youths of RTP and RTBP, who are taking jobs outside fisheries and not following the work of their parents.
8.4 Increasing trend in numbers of fishermen
During the year prior to the census enumeration, the number of RTP fishermen increased by 1.5 percent at the three islands level. However, such an increasing rate in Java is quite high, being 2.1 percent, as compared with 0.3 percent for Sumatra.
Throughout the three islands, the increasing rate of numbers of RTBP fishermen is quite low, being only 0.3 percent per annum. However, such an increasing rate in Java is high, being 1.2 percent per annum.
Out of the total number of fishermen increased in Java, the number of persons who became fishermen immediately after finishing school studies is small, being 21.7 percent, as compared with 56.1 percent for Sumatra.
However, the number of persons in Java who became fishermen by changing their jobs from others is quite high, being 41.9 percent of the total, as compared with 21.8 percent for Sumatra. Besides, in Java the number of persons who did not have work but became fishermen is also quite high, being 47.6 percent of the total. These facts may imply the general instability of employment in Java.
8.5 Extent of dependency on the fishery
Fishermen's dependency on the fishery is quite high for both RTP and RTBP fishermen. Throughout the three islands the number of RTP male fishermen who are “Full time” or “Part time, major” is 83.9 percent of the total. Similarly the corresponding percentage for RTBP male fishermen is also high, being 85.3 percent of the total.
However, on the west coast of Sumatra and on the south coast of Java fishermen's dependency on the fishery is rather low, the percentage of male fishermen who are “Full time” or “Part time, major” being approximately 65 percent of the total. This is due to the higher strength of the west monsoon.
8.6 Educational attainment of fishermen
In general, the educational attainment of both RTP and RTBP fishermen is quite low. Throughout the three islands, the number of male fishermen who did not go to any school accounts for 47.5 percent for RTP and 45.2 percent for RTBP. The number of male fishermen who entered elementary school but dropped out before graduation is also high, being 23.7 percent for RTP and 33.3 percent for RTBP. Thus, the number of male fishermen who finished elementary school and above is only 28.8 percent for RTP and 21.5 percent for RTBP:
The educational attainment of fishermen in Sumatra is much better than that in Java. The number of fishermen who finished elementary school and above is considerably higher in Sumatra, being 38.1 percent for RTP and 39.5 percent for RTBP, as compared with 23.6 percent for RTP and 10.5 percent for RTBP in Java.
Educational attainment of female fishermen is extremely low; there is a very high percentage of female fishermen either from RTP or RTPB who never attended schools.
ECONOMIC NATURE OF BWFC HOLDINGS
1.1 Size distribution of holdings
The size of individual holdings, in terms of pond area, ranges from less than 1 ha to 15 ha and over. For the three islands, the total number of holdings, holdings with less than 2 ha of ponds comprise 63.6 percent. However, as such a small class of holding occupies only 22.7 percent of the total pond area, its production is only 27.8 percent of the total. Whereas, holdings with 2 ha or more of ponds produce 72.2 percent of the total production, as such large holdings occupies 77.3 percent of the total pond area.
1.2 Average size of holdings
The average size of BWFC holdings throughout three islands is 2.25 ha. However, that in Sumatra is quite small, being only 0.69 ha, as compared with 2.60 ha in Java. Within Java, the average size of holding in East Java is the largest, being 3.44 ha, which is followed by Jakarta (2.94 ha), West Java (2.63 ha) and Central Java (1.84 ha).
1.3 Type of management
The management of BWFC is run on “Own accounts” basis in the majority of cases, being 93 percent of the total. The remaining 7 percent is mostly “Partnership”. No company has yet been developed. The average number of BWFC farmers per holding is 1.7 persons, which comprise 1.5 persons of household members and 0.4 hired labourers. Owing to the scarcity of employment, BWFC undertakings still remain at the stage of a peasant economy.
1.4 Tenant status
Out of the total number of holdings, those who own their pond and those who rent their pond are 79.1 and 20.9 percent, respectively. In the former cases 75.4 percent is individually owned and 3.7 percent is jointly owned. In the latter, those who rent a pond from a third person are most dominant (10.2 percent). This is followed by “Renting from government” (4.8 percent) and “Production sharing system” (2.9 percent).
AQUACULTURE TECHNIQUES BEING PRACTISED
2.1 Mode of stocking
Although intentional stocking of milkfish is widely practised, holdings which depend entirely on natural stocking, account for 16 percent of the total. Intentional stocking of milkfish together with other species, such as shrimp, is seldom practised.
2.2 Nursing activity
It is well known that milkfish culture, in principle, should follow two steps, i.e., (i) nursing fry into fingerling and (ii) rearing fingerling into marketable size. However, this two-step aquaculture is not always practised, with the exception of Aceh and Jakarta. Thus, holdings which carry out nursing are only 9.1 percent of the total number of holdings.
2.3 Stocking rates
Stocking rates of fry and/or fingerling per ha per year is 4 100, which is quite low compared with 6 400 in the Philippines, and 10 500 in Taiwan. However, the stocking rate in Aceh is quite high, being 11 900, as compared with 3 800 for Java and Bali. The stocking rate generally decreases with the enlargement of the size of holding.
2.4 Material input
The use of pesticide to eradicate predators and the use of fertilizer to increase the productivity are seen to some extent. Yet, cases where neither pesticide nor fertilizer is used are still in the majority, being more than 80 percent of the total number of holdings in many provinces. The only exceptions are Aceh and Jakarta, where the use of these items is relatively high. In general, the larger the size of holding, the more the use of these items is practised. The type of fertilizer in use is mostly of an organic nature.
2.5 Labour input
The number of BWFC farmers per holding does not always increase in proportion to the enlargement of the size of holding. Thus, an area of pond to be taken care of by one farmer becomes larger with the enlargement of the size of holding. This results in less attention per unit area as the size of holding becomes larger.
2.6 Stock manipulation
There are two supply seasons of milkfish fry in a year. Corresponding to these two seasons, the stocking of milkfish fry and/or fingerling is done, in the majority of cases, once or twice a year. In Aceh, however, stocking of three times and more is often seen. This implies some development of stock manipulation.
2.7 Renovation of ponds
Renovation of a fish pond should be done, in principle, at least once a year to strengthen the dike and to deepen the depth of the pond. Judging from the area of ponds renovated, however, such renovation of ponds is carried out only once every three years.
2.8 Species composition of yield
Yield of BWFC consists not only of milkfish but also of tilapia, mullet, ikan, kakap (barramundi), tawes (puntius) and several shrimp species. Since species other than milkfish are seldom stocked, the yield of species other than milkfish is considered to be due to natural stocking. According to the census results, species composition for milkfish, shrimps and others is roughly 70, 20 and 10 percent of the total, respectively.
2.9 Survival rate
According to a rough estimate, survival rate during the course of rearing is around 24.5 percent, which is quite low, compared with 54 percent for the Philippines and 80 percent for Taiwan.
PRODUCTIVITY PER HECTARE PER YEAR
3.1 Productivity in Indonesia
Difference between areas
Productivity per ha in Sumatra and Java is 650 and 250 kg, respectively. Within Java, however, the productivity in Jakarta is 540 kg, which is the highest, compared with 350 kg in Central Java, 200 kg in East Java and only 180 kg in West Java.
Difference between various sizes of management
The productivity per ha is the highest in the case of the smallest holding running 1 ha or less of pond. Then, the productivity decreases with the enlargement of the size of management. This may be due partly to a smaller manpower input per ha, as mentioned in 2.5 above, and due partly to a smaller stocking rate, as mentioned in 2.3.
3.2 Intercountry comparison
Productivity per ha in Taiwan and the Philippines is 2 067 and 694 kg, respectively, quite high compared with 245 kg in Java. However, the productivity in Aceh (671 kg) is comparable with that in the Philippines.
3.3 Reasons for low productivity in Indonesia
The reasons for low productivity in Indonesia are considered to be (i) less development of nursing activity (ii) low stocking rate (iii) non-use or less use of pesticide and fertilizer (iv) absence or less development of stock manipulation and (v) extremely low survival rate, as already mentioned.
3.4 Possibility to increase productivity in Indonesia
A higher stocking rate of fish seed, more use of pesticide and fertilizer and adoption of stock manipulation, as being practised in Taiwan, will result in higher survival rate and hence higher production. The outcome of an intensive milkfish culture experiment at Jepara, which is more or less the same as that developed in Taiwan will ensure that such a possibility exists in Indonesia. Relatively high productivity achieved in Aceh is also due to a somewhat better practice of the above three factors.
SUPPLY OF MILKFISH FRY
4.1 Capture of milkfish fry
The total number of milkfish fry caught in 1973 is estimated at 224.9 million, of which 165.3 million or 73 percent of them are caught in Java. However, capture of milkfish fry is very badly distributed in Aceh and East Java, which produce 59.6 and 124.5 million, or 27 percent and 55 percent of the total, respectively.
4.2 Present demand for milkfish fry
The production of milkfish fry in Aceh is self-sufficient to meet the demand, whereas, in Java and Bali production is short of the present demand. As a result, about 21 percent of required fry in Java is imported from other areas at present.
4.3 Future demand for milkfish fry
Improved aquaculture techniques associated with more use of pesticide and fertilizer will definitely improve the survival rate, whereby the total number of fry required can be reduced. To improve productivity per ha, the present low stocking rate has to be increased. Assuming that in the future the present productivity of 250 kg is increased to 1 000 kg and the present survival rate of 23.6 percent is improved to 80 percent, the number of fry required in Java will be increased from 209.4 to 256.4 million. This will further increase the shortage of fry supply in Java.
LOANS
The number of holdings which obtained loans in 1973 was only 5 756 or 25 percent of the total. Of 5 756 holdings, those who were able to obtain a public loan were only 1 465 or 6.4 percent of the total number of holdings. Of private loans, the fish dealer's loan is dominant.
SOCIOECONOMIC NATURE OF BWFC HOUSEHOLD
6.1 Gross income generated from BWFC
In Java the average annual gross income per household generated from BWFC is only about Rp. 43.1 thousand. Such an average gross income in Aceh is, however, slightly higher, due to its higher productivity, being Rp. 50.7 thousand. These figures clearly indicate how low the income of a BWFC household is, although BWFC household may secure some additional income from sources other than BWFC.
6.2 Extent of dependency on BWFC
In spite of low incomes generated from BWFC, the number of BWFC households of “Full time” and “Part time, major” comprises more than 70 percent of the total. This clearly reveals that BWFC households have little opportunity to derive their income from sources other than BWFC culture.
6.3 Monthly household expenditure
The number of BWFC operator's households whose monthly expenditure is less than Rp. 10 000 accounts for about 50 percent of the total.
SOCIOECONOMIC NATURE OF BWFC FARMER
7.1 Sex ratio
Out of the total number of BWFC farmers, females account for 13.5 percent, which is relatively high compared with 3.6 percent for the marine fishery. A high percentage of female workers in BWFC may be due to the easy nature of BWFC work.
7.2 Age composition
BWFC farmers aged 30 years and above are the main workers of BWFC, being 70.5 percent of the total. When age composition of BWFC farmers is compared with that of other workers, BWFC farmers are generally older. This implies that some youths of BWFC households are leaving BWFC without following their parents' professions.
7.3 Extent of dependency on BWFC
The number of male farmers of “Full time” and “Part time, major” comprise 68.4 percent of the total. Such a percentage is high in a province like Jakarta and Central Java, where productivity per ha is high. This implies that in these provinces more attention is paid to BWFC operations.
7.4 Educational level
Out of the total number of BWFC farmers, those who did not attend any school and those who did not finish elementary school account for 33.1 and 30.0 percent, respectively. Thus, those who finished elementary school and above are only 36.9 percent of the total. There is, however, a great difference of educational level between males and females. The males have more opportunity to attend school, whereas, the education of the females seems to have been completely ignored.
