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8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Cook, H.L., 1976, Problems in shrimp culture in the South China Sea region. Manila, South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, SCS/76/WP/40:50 p.

Cook, H.L., V. Pongsuwana and S. Wechasitt, 1984, Recommendation for construction and management of brackishwater aquaculture ponds in areas with acid sulfate soil. In Malaysia: Coastal aquaculture development. Rome, FAO, FI:DP/MAL/77/008 Field document 2, pp.243–60

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Gedney, R.H., J.M. Kapetsky and W.W. Kuhnhold, 1982, Training on assessment of coastal aquaculture potential, Malaysia. Manila, South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, SCS/GEN/82/35:62 p.

Gedney, R.H., Y.C. Shang and H.L. Cook, 1983, Comparative study of tidal and pumped water supply for brackishwater aquaculture ponds in Malaysia. Manila, South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, SCS/83/WP/117:40 p.

Glopper, R.J. de and R.L.H. Poels, 1973, A general study with tentative recommendations to the Government of Thailand on reclamation possibilities in the coastal area of the Central Plain in Thailand. Rome, FAO, 64 p. Unpubl. report (mimeo)

Hadley, M. and J.-P. Lanly, 1983, Tropical forest ecosystems: identifying differences, seeking similarities. Nat.Resour., 19 (1):2–19

Hamilton, L.S. and S.C. Snedaker (eds), 1984, Handbook for mangrove area management. UN Environment Programme/East-West Centre Environment and Policy Institute. Paris, Unesco, 123 p.

Hempel, E. and S. van Eys, 1985, The shrimp industry markets, quality problems and competition from aquaculture. INFOFISH Market. Dig., (185):22–6

Hickling, C.F., 1962, Fish culture. London, Faber and Faber, 295 p.

International Trade Centre, 1983, Shrimps: a survey of the world market. Geneva, UNCTAD/GATT, 273 p.

Kapetsky, J.M., 1982, Some potential environmental effects of coastal aquaculture with implications for site selection and aquaculture engineering. Manila, South China Seas Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, SCS/GEN/82/42:76–82

Kawalec, A., 1973. World distribution of acid sulfate soils. References and map. Publ.Int.Inst.Land Reclam.Improv., Wageningen, (18) vol.1:293–6

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Ong, J.E., 1982, Mangroves and aquaculture in Malaysia. Ambio, 11:252–7

Ong, J.E., W.-K. Gong and C.-H. Wong, 1980, Ecological survey of the Sungei Merbok estuarine mangrove ecosystem. Penang, Malaysia, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 83 p.

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Potter, T., 1976, The problems of fish culture associated with acid sulfate soils and methods for their improvement. In Report of the ASEAN Seminar/Workshop on shrimp culture, Iloilo City, Philippines, 15–23 November 1976. Manila, ASEAN National Secretariat of the Philippines, (76/Shr.Cult.2/Pap.1):10 p.

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Singh, V.P, 1980a, Management of fishponds with acid sulfate soils. 2. Asian Aquacult., 3(5):4–6

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Watts, J.C.D., 1968, Phosphate relationships in acid-sulfate pond muds from the Malacca area. Malays.Agric.J., 46(3)

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Yunker, M.P. and E.D. Scura, 1984, An improved strategy for building brackishwater culture ponds with iron pyrite soils in mangrove swamps. Paper presented at the First International Conference on the Culture of Penaeid Prawns/Shrimps. December 4–8, 1984, Iloilo City, Philippines (mimeo)

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 1. Worldwide distribution of acid sulfate soils

TABLE 1

World Fish Production 1977–82
(106 mt)

 197719781979198019811982
World Total of which:68.570.271.272.375.176.8
Inland waters  7.1  7.1  7.3  7.6  8.2  8.6
Marine areas61.463.264.064.766.868.2

Source: FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, Vol.54, 1984

TABLE 2

Overview of Fish and Shellfish Resources

 Status (1981) (in million tons)Potential
(Additional)
FoodReductionNot used TotalNot Landed
CONVENTIONAL      
Freshwater (capture)
   5.6    5.6      4.5
Freshwater (culture)
   3.5    3.5      (?)4
MARINE      
Cultured
  0.5    0.5      (?)4
Demersal
14.0  7.01.022.04–5255
Small pelagic
18.814.6 33.4 5–15
Others
  3.2 +   3.2 23
Crustaceans
  2.7    2.7 0.7
Molluscs (mainly culture)
  3.4    3.4 4
UNCONVENTIONAL      
Cephalopods
  1.3  0.1+  1.4   4
Mesopelagic
 ? ++  100+
Euphausids
 +  0.4   0.4   50+
WORLD TOTAL153.022.11.076.14–518–285
of which aquaculture
           7.4(14%)     
of which capture
          45.6 (86%)     

1 Excludes seaweed, aquatic plants and residuals.

2 Includes 3–4 million tonnes by-catch from shrimp fishery, and about one million tonnes of discards from demersal fishery.

3 Smaller tunas, bonito, etc.

4 Aquaculture potentials are not resource dependent to a large extent.

5 Excluding unconventional.

6 A substantial spoilage loss has not been included in this category.

Note: For the purpose of this Table, “Marine Fish” unspecified has been divided between demersal and pelagic (50/50).

Updated from: FAO/NORAD, 1982, Fishery products and the consumer in developing countries. Report of the FAO/NORAD Round Table Discussion on fishery products and the consumer in developing countries. Frazer's Hill, Malaysia, 11–16 January 1982. FAO Fish.Rep., (271):37 p., p.15

TABLE 3

Daily Protein Supply and Proportion of Fish Protein in Daily Intake1
(Average values for 1979–1981)

 Total Proteinof whichAnimal Proteinof whichFish ProteinFish Protein as a Percentage of
Grams per caput per dayTotal ProteinAnimal Protein
N. America104.9 70.6 3.6  3.4%  5.1%
W. Europe  98.1 56.3 4.9  5.0%  8.6%
Oceania  94.7 61.5 3.3  3.5%  5.3%
E. Europe & USSR100.6 51.4 7.2  7.2%14.0%
Other developed m.econ.  86.5 43.1 19.2  22.2%44.5%
TOTAL DEVELOPED  98.9 56.2 7.5  7.6%13.3%
Africa  55.0 11.4 2.8  5.0%24.6%
Latin America  67.2 27.7 2.6  3.9%  9.4%
N. East  78.0 18.8 1.3  1.7%  7.0%
Far East  51.1 7.9 2.5  4.9%31.3%
Other developing m.ec.  50.4 20.2 6.613.0%32.3%
Asian centrally planned econ.  58.6 11.2 1.9  3.2%17.0%
TOTAL DEVELOPING  57.5 12.3 2.3  4.0%20.7%
WORLD  68.3 23.2 3.7  5.4%15.9%

1 Source: FAO, 1984. Food Balance Sheets, 1979–81 Average

TABLE 4

World Landings of Shrimps by Major Producing Countries a
(103t - Live Weight)

Country1972197319741975197619771978197919801981
China102334029125197234131167193
India160208246246198233187183250176
United States176173169157184216192152162161
Indonesia65605868121146150155136160
Thailand6711392105111138143131133121
Malaysia60657848586482868495
Brazil57494343385155797479
Mexico75737469727267747772
Vietnam40626262626262626262
Japan57627969615460535155
Norway10121619252632344541
Greenland781010101513233640
Philippines33323640412624242637
Pakistan18211617222019242630
Australia18172416192219222227
Spain33353241372628151826
Korea, Rep.of10211830303026272724
Ecuador787681010111820
Panama101110910101091015
Canada235591010111215
Subtotalb1 0101 0701 1201 0901 2401 4301 4201 3101 4401 450
WORLD TOTAL b1 2201 2901 3501 3301 5001 6701 6901 5701 7001 700

a Source: UNCTAD/GATT, Shrimps: a survey of the world market, 1983 (Geneva), derived from FAO data base for Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics (Rome).

b Data rounded to nearest 104 t.

TABLE 5

Exports of Shrimps from World's 30 Largest Exporters a
(103t - Live Weight Equivalent) b

Country19771978197919801981
India71 80 87 74  82
Mexico60 63 58 59  54
Indonesia47 51 56 53  44
China12 22 32 35  40
Denmark24 25 26 38  39
Greenland15  9 16 30  38
Thailand23 26 32 32  34
Malaysia36 37 39 34  34
Norway21 16 17 23  22
Netherlands12 13 1620  20
Hong Kong20 19 20 20  20
Taiwan, Province of China11 13 17 18   19
Ecuador  6   8 10 14  18
Australia12 12 15 18  18
Pakistan  9   8   9 10   16
United States24 28 24 15  15
Panama  7   7   9 10  12
Brazil  5   7 12 11  12
Bangladesh  5   6   6   7    9
Faeroe Islands19 15 11 13    7
Canada  3   3   6   8    7
Senegal  5   6   6   7    7
Cuba  8   7 10   9    6
Mozambique  4  4   5   4    6
Philippines  4  5   7   4    5
Madagascar  5  4   4   4    5
El Salvador  4  3   4   4    5
Burma  1  2   3   4    4
Japan  3  3   3   3    4
Honduras  3  2   2   4    4
TOTAL478  506   563 585 605

a Derived from: International Shrimp Market, UNCTAD/GATT, 1983.

b Data rounded to nearest 104t.

TABLE 6

Imports of Shrimps into Major Markets a
(103t - Live Weight Equivalents) a

Country19771978197919801981
Japan192222244223251
United States157137155151154
France2930374142
United Kingdom1834354136
Hong Kong2425283026
Netherlands1316182323
Sweden1817182017
Canada1716151616
Germany, F.R.1012141614
Spain1110131613
BLEU1112141513
Italy4871110
Australia876610
Singapore56757
Switzerland22222
TOTAL521553613616635

a Derived from: International Shrimp Market, UNCTAD/GATT, 1983.

b Import quantities were converted to equivalent live weight by multiplying by 1.52 to include weight loss in removing heads (derived from data in SCSP, 1983).

TABLE 7

Milkfish Production in the Philippines a

YearArea
(×1000 ha)
Production
(×1000 t)
Yield
kg/ha/yr
1952  89  31350
1953  96  33350
1954100  35350
1955105  37350
1956110  38350
1957113  39350
1958117  60510
1959120  58490
1960123  60490
1961126  61480
1962129  61480
1963132  62470
1964134  63470
1965137  63460
1966139  64460
1967140  64460
1968163  87530
1969164  95580
1970168  96570
1971171  98570
1972174  99570
1973176100570
1974176113640
1975176106610
1976176113640
1977176116660
1978176119670
1979176134760
1980176136770

a Source: Chong et al., 1984

TABLE 8

Ages of Philippines Milkfish Ponds, 1978 and 1980 and pH of pond soils 1983
(Data originate from three different surveys) a

ProvincepH1978
Average age (years)
1980
Average age (years)
Cagayan-  5-
Pangasinan-22-
Bulacan6.54441
Quezon--18
Mindoro Oriental5.5-15
Masbate-13-
Iloilo-30-
Capiz5.9-20
Negros (Oriental)6.1-27
Bohol5.31015
Lanao del Norte5.5-15
Zamboanga del Sur-15-
Sample average-2023

a Source: Chong, et al., 1984

TABLE 9

Estimated Capital Costs and Annual Operating Costs and Break-even
Production for Tidal and Pump-Operated Systems per 1 ha of Water Area
a

 Tidal pondPumped pond
Natural ground elevation0.9–1.2 m1.5–1.8 m1.8–2.7 m
Capital costUS$ 35 752US$ 51 233US$ 27 293
Annual costs for interest1 and principal payment, for interest2 and operation and maintenance of pumps
US$ 6 405US$ 9 067US$ 5 931
Break-even production of shrimp1 143 kg1 618 kg1 059 kg

a Source: Cook, Pongsuwana and Wechasitt, 1984

1 A 12% interest rate on loan is assumed

2 Cost of fuel estimated at 7.3 1/day/ha or US$ 528/ha/365 day operation. Cost of maintenance of pumps is estimated at 3% of purchase price for first two years and 10% thereafter

TABLE 10

Areas of Tropical Forest (1980) a

RegionMangrove Areas
(×1000 ha)
Mangrove Areas
(×1000 ha)
Total b Tropical
“Forest”
(×1000 ha)
Central America and Mexico 1 490  
CARICOM   240  
Other Caribbean   600  
Tropical South Latin America3 460  
Tropical America (23 countries)
   5 780   900 000
Northern Savanna Region   230  
West Africa1 650  
Central Africa   610  
East Africa and Madagascar   920  
Tropical Africa (37 countries)
   3 400   700 000
South Asia   850  
Continental Southeast Asia1 130  
Insular Southeast Asia3 420  
Centrally planned tropical Asia   330  
Papua New Guinea   550  
Tropical Asia (16 countries)
   6 280   340 000
TOTAL (76 countries)
 15 5001 940 000

a Lanly, 1982.

b Lanly, 1982; Table 1f, tree cover not affected by agriculture.

TABLE 11

World's Major Mangrove Areas, Population Densities and Per Capita GNP a

CountryArea of Mangroves
(103ha)
Population Density
(n/km2)
Per Capita GNP
(US$)
Brazil2 500  14   2 220
Indonesia2 180  78      530
Australia1 160    2 11 080
Nigeria   970  95      870
Venezuela   670  17   4 220
Mexico   660  36   2 250
Malaysia   650  43   1 840
Burma   520  50      190
Senegal   500  30      430
Panama   490  25   1 910
Colombia   440  23   1 380
Bangladesh   420630     140
Papua New Guinea   410   7      460
India   360210     260
Malagasy   320  15      330
Vietnam   290169-
Gabon   250    3  2 420
Pakistan   250105    350
Philippines   250165    790
Ecuador   220 30  1 180
United States   210 2512 820
Cameroon   200 18     880
TOTAL OF MAJOR MANGROVE AREAS13 900    

a Source: Hamilton and Snedaker, 1984.

TABLE 12

World Distribution of Some Problem Soils a
(106ha)

RegionAcid Sulfate SoilsPeat SoilsPlanasolsSaline and Sodic Soils
Asia and Far East  6.7  23.5    2.7  19.5
Africa  3.7  12.2  15.9  69.5
Latin America  2.1    7.4  67.2  59.4
North America  0.1117.8  12.3  16.0
Near and Middle East  0.0    0.0   0.0  53.1
Australia  0.0    4.1  49.3  84.7
Europe  0.0  75.0    4.0  20.7
WORLD TOTAL12.6240.0151.4322.9

a Source: Brinkman, 1982


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