Five recent reports (Peleg, 1980; ECA/FAO 1985; Muller and Varadi, 1986; Chondoma, 1987; Mashapa and Matobo, 1987) thoroughly review the status of aquaculture in Lesotho and issues concerning its development.
Rural fish-farming activities are limited at present by climate, water, and soil suitability to the lowland areas and Senqu Valley, where the vast majority of the population lives. Of the eight indigenous fish species, only Clarias gariepinus has any potential in fish-farming. Seven species (Cyprinus carpio, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Salmo gairdneri, S. trutta, Micropterus salmoides, Lepomis macrochirus) have been introduced for fishing and/or fish-farming development. Fishing is an insignificant, though perhaps under-appreciated, rural activity for which no official records are kept.
Basotho lowland farming systems include subsistence production of a variety of grains and legumes and the keeping of livestock primarily for wealth, draught power, and social status, with some off-take of meat for home consumption. Rangelands are now overstocked and suffering from serious soil erosion. Fishing and fish-farming are not traditional activities and are seen as low priority and secondary activities by farmers.
Basotho rural communities consist mainly of women (an estimated 80% of adult population) and children. Many men are away working on contracts in the mines of the Republic of South Africa. Some men work on one-year contracts and other on short-term contracts, returning frequently to Lesotho, but not necessarily to their villages every time. Thus the money they earn does not always reach their villages.
A result of male labour migrating to South Africa is that women have an extra burden in the villages. They must do agricultural work in the fields, domestic work such as fetching water and heating/cooking fuel, cooking, cleaning, washing clothes, horticulture, poultry-tending, handicrafts, and child care. Rural women are also interested to undertake fish-farming, mainly because of the potential nutritional benefits. They are aware of the lack of animal protein in their family diets, due to the high cost of meat products, and they are worried how this might affect their children.
The fact that women undertake so many practical activities does not necessarily imply that they also take the important decisions in the household or community. For example, a married woman cannot have a bank loan without her husband's signature, nor can she sell livestock or join a project without her husband's approval, even if he is absent for long periods. The number of women in the Village Development Committees (or Village Councils) does not correspond to their real majority in the village population or input into productive activities. For example, Ramapepe Village Development Committee consists of six men and one woman. A woman cannot be village chief, although she could act for a younger son who inherits the title.
All projects concerning women in rural communities must be approved using the traditional decision-making structure in the community, and household, which is dominated by men.
Production in villages is household-based, e.g., women, children, and grandparents. Associations are formed for certain crops and activities (e.g., funerals), but women work mainly as individuals with agriculture, horticulture, livestock and child care. Income-producing activities, such as handicrafts and poultry-raising, are usually carried out through associations at the village or area level. Women use this income for extra food, fuel, tools, and for their children. Money earned by the men in South Africa does not necessarily reach the village, and employment in South Africa is becoming more difficult to secure. Some men spend large amounts of their time looking for work in Maseru and it is difficult for them to return to their villages if they have not found work and have spent all their money in town.
Since 1968, the farming of common carp in lowland ponds has been promoted by the Government through the Fisheries Section of the Livestock Department. Two systems of pond culture have been adapted to local conditions at the Maseru Fish Hatchery: common carp fed pelleted feeds, and the same system in association with Peking ducks. The differences are both technical and economic. The hatchery has the capability to produce carp seed and by the end of 1987 should be able to produce ducklings. However, only a limited number of common carp fingerlings have been produced in 1987. Recommendations to develop and promote carp polyculture systems (Peleg 1980, ECA/FAO 1985, Muller and Varadi 1986) have not yet been implemented. Pelleted carp feed has not been produced during 1987 due to a breakdown in the pelleting machine at the hatchery.
Attempts to introduce tilapias have not been successful due to cold winter temperatures. Work has been carried out at the hatchery to breed the indigenous catfish C. gariepinus and develop an appropriate culture technique, although the results have yet to be transferred to farmers.
Uptake of carp culture in rural areas has been in two organizational types. Village fish-farmer associations, where ponds are communally owned and managed, at one time comprised 30 ha of 132 ponds in 29 villages, ranging from 0.05 to 0.4 ha in size. These associations have received Government support to build and manage the ponds. Average yield had reached 900 kg/ha/year, but only 18 ha of these ponds are now operating, with no current data available on production. There are about 10 ha of ponds among 10 individual private fish-farmers. Total annual production of fish by these two types of fish-farmers has ranged from 0.8 to 30 t.
There are about 150 ha of small-and medium-size reservoirs in the lowlands, built for such purposes as irrigation and soil conservation (silt traps), which have potential to produce fish. About 15 ha have been stocked with common carp, mirror carp, or largemouth bass and bluegill forage. Records on stocking or fishing of these reservoirs are incomplete.
Trout were stocked in some mountain streams until 1980. It is believed that some stable populations have been established under low fishing pressure.
Rural fish-farming is promoted through the agricultural extension service, where the fisheries assistant in each District serves as the aquaculture subject matter specialist to the frontline extension workers. However, the agricultural extension services appear generally overburdened with the number of crops, understaffed, and lacking transport. The Fisheries Section staff have undergone intensive training over the last decade and appear well-qualified.
In 1985 (latest figures available) an estimated 8.78 t of fish were produced in aquaculture activities, although this figure has varied considerably in the past due to variation in fingerling supply, water availability, and general farmer interest. Lesotho imports over 1 000 t of fish per year. There is an estimated environmental potential to produce 500 to 750 t/year of fish from aquaculture, although the economic viability of such production is not known, especially due to the availability of large supplies of imported fish. Chondoma (1987) reviews the nutritional need for fish and concludes that aquaculture in rural communities could make a significant contribution to improving access to protein.
The Lesotho National Fisheries Policy Objectives, as summarized in Chondoma (1987) are to:
integrate aquaculture into the development of local communities for food and income;
develop and manage the lacustrine fisheries for sustainable utilization;
stimulate private investment in the sector;
promote participatory planning on the part of local communities.
In pursuit of these objectives, the 1987–1991 five-year development plan aims to:
increase the area under fish-cum-duck culture from 20 to 50 ha producing 60 t of fish annually;
increase pond productivity from 900 kg/ha/year to 1 200 kg/ha/year;
produce Peking ducklings to supply fish-cum-duck farms;
improve the management of the existing village fish production units through better extension services, training of farm managers, and encouraging farmer participation;
stock and manage selected reservoirs to produce 25 t/year of fish through fishing.
The Fisheries Section has elaborated short- and medium-term workplans with specific actions to realize these objectives. A number of problem areas have been identified in respect to rural fish-farming development:
completion of hatchery infrastructure to meet the demand for fish and duck seed for fish-farmers and reservoir stocking;
organization and financing of effective extension services, including practical training, transport, audio-visual materials, and record-keeping;
demonstration of an economically acceptable and sustainable fish-farming system for rural farmers, especially in relation to pond construction costs, feed inputs, credit needs, and reduction of dependence on government support;
low acceptance of carp as food by rural people;
poor management of community ponds by groups and the need to more effectively involve community members in the decision-making process;
variation in water availability and quality due to seasonal weather, soil erosion, and low temperatures.
The Fisheries Section looks at fish-farming from a very technical point of view. There is a need for the section to have more information on the general situation of the rural communities, and an analysis of this information from the point of view of fish-farming. This would allow the section to follow the socio-economic effects of rural fish-farming development.
The Fisheries Section has identified two priority target areas for further investigation: utilization of small water-bodies, and extension and training. In addition to reviewing the status of small-scale aquaculture, the mission visited three potential pilot project sites in relation to these target areas. The prospects for pilot project activities in these two target areas are evaluated below.
(a) Production of Fish in Small Reservoirs. There is potential to produce fish in existing small rural reservoirs through basic fishery management for the benefit of the local rural communities. There are over 20 000 erosion gulleys, or dongas, in the lowlands of Lesotho, many of which have been dammed-up to promote soil conservation. One such donga and two reservoirs were visited:
Ramapepe reservoir (est. 10 ha) in Leribe District supplies water to a small irrigation scheme and two community fish-farming units. The status of the fishery, if any, is not known;
Tholoana Lerato conservation dam (donga) (est. 0.4 ha) in Maseru District is located in the Lesotho Save the Children Boys Village farm. The dam was first stocked with common carp in the late 1970s and it is periodically cropped and restocked by the Fisheries Section for the benefit of the village. Ducks are reared next to the dam and LSC has applied to build its own small hatchery;
Mejatalana reservoir (est. 1.5 ha) in a suburban residential area of Maseru supplies water for a small irrigation scheme but is otherwise fenced and not exploited. The Fisheries Section plans to exploit the common carp population (stocked late 1960s) by controlled public fishing, and to introduce ducks.
From the point of view of the target area, Tholoana Lerato conservation dam is of interest because it has a recorded history of management of both fish and ducks, a system recommended and in need of demonstration for these small-size reservoirs. Ramapepe is of interest because it is set in a rural area among other fish-farming projects which already receive attention from the Fisheries Section, and as such represents an alternative source of fish. A pilot project to investigate and demonstrate the economic viability of producing fish from such reservoirs could benefit local rural communities, especially due to the large number of unexploited small reservoirs in Lesotho and the region.
(b) Improvement of Existing Rural Community Fish-Farms through Extension and Training. There is a need to demonstrate a viable rural fish-farming system, which could be done using effective and affordable extension methods. In the Ramapepe Valley of Leribe District, the Ramapepe fish-farm and the Thaba Phatsoa fish-farm were visited. These farms were built with Government assistance and are owned and managed by fish-farmer associations which are run by women. Production has declined in the last few years, mainly due to lack of seed and feed inputs, and also the lack of manpower due to migration of men to South African mines, which affects almost every household. While the fish-farming techniques are well developed, the economic viability of these techniques in this setting has not yet been demonstrated. The Fisheries Section is now actively trying to prove the viability of this system through the provision of inputs and training. The Programme may wish to monitor progress in proving the viability of the fish-farming system prior to considering this target area for pilot project activities in Lesotho. It is recognized that a successful demonstration of viability will greatly benefit the local communities and may serve as a good example for similar community fish ponds in other locations in Lesotho. However, since neither the fish-farming system nor the extension method employed are new, the activity even if accepted is of little relevance at the regional level. Therefore the mission does not recommend it as a pilot project at this time.
A pilot project is proposed which will serve to enable the collaborating communities to develop the fishery resources of their small reservoirs. In the context of the Programme, this pilot project will contribute to the body of knowledge on how small reservoir exploitation can enhance rural development.
The pilot project will first undertake to study the physical and biological characteristics of the reservoir, the social, cultural, and economic characteristics of the surrounding community, and the interaction of the community with the reservoir. The potential fishery management options will then be elaborated in full consultation with the community, and implemented by community members.
It is proposed that the small reservoirs at Ramapepe and Tholoana Lerato be the initial sites for investigations under this pilot project in terms of the survey activities described in the next section. A more detailed description of the proposed pilot project is found in Appendix 1.
Additional preparation for the pilot project is necessary prior to its approval at the national level and to assist in its evaluation and selection at the regional level. In this case there are three main areas of preparation.
(a) Small Reservoir Sector Review. A brief survey of the number, size, and location of small reservoirs in Lesotho will establish the local background for this pilot project, including description of ongoing efforts to build, maintain, and exploit such reservoirs. It is possible that suitable sites other than Ramapepe and Tholoana Lerato might be identified during this exercise. The specific reservoirs which will be used in this pilot project should be surveyed for size, depth, and limnology to aid in the planning of fishery management options.
(b) Socio-economic Description of Communities. It is important to put fish-farming into the context of the rural social structure, standard of living, and general agricultural setting if it is going to be an effective tool for rural development. To study this development process, a holistic perspective of the community is necessary, built on statistical information, interviews with farmers, and observations through participation in village life. This information should be collected on both a baseline and ongoing basis to be able to gauge the impact of fish-farming on the community. Also needed is a more thorough review of statistics relating to social organization of farming activities.
(c) Organizational Framework. While the general responsibility for implementing pilot project activities should be taken by the Fisheries Section, on-site responsibility should utimately reside with the community. An organizational framework is necessary to ensure delivery of pilot project services to the community and to enable the community to organize its activities in a sustainable manner.
At Ramapepe, the Fisheries Section has other activities and therefore the reservoir exploitation could fit into its organized extension activities in the valley. At Tholoana Lerato, LSC manages the farm and could provide the technical backup and perhaps some financial assistance, although this must be investigated further.
The main role of the Programme staff will be to provide guidance on the approach and technical matters. Specific field work may be necessary by Programme staff to gather and evaluate information on the relation of communities to the reservoirs.
Three recent reports (Gaudet 1985, Chondoma 1987, Hlanze and Msibi 1987) thoroughly review the status of aquaculture in Swaziland and issues surrounding its development.
Swaziland may be divided into four major climatic zones in relation to agriculture, including fish-farming. The mountainous highveld (1 050 m to 1 400 m) is suitable for year-round culture of cold water species such as trout. Its lower regions and the upper regions of the middleveld (300 m to 1 050 m) are suitable for carp and catfish except in winter. The lower middleveld and Lubombo (average 600 m) are suitable for carp and catfish year-round and tilapia except in winter. The lowveld (150 m to 300 m) is suitable for carp, catfish, and tilapia year-round. Fish-farming in various forms has been tried in all of these zones.
There are 35 indigenous and 7 introduced fish species in Swaziland. Of the indigenous species, Tilapia rendalli, Sarotheradon mossambicus, Clarias gariepinus, Barbus spp. and Labeo spp. are important to the limited capture fisheries. The tilapias and catfish are used in fish-farming, in addition to the introduced species of Salmo gairdneri and Cyprinus carpio.
Agriculture activities in Swaziland take place in two parallel sectors. The modern agriculture on Title Deed Land (TDL) is a market-oriented sector dominated by large companies producing 60% of agricultural output on 44% of the land. About 850 farms operate in this sector, many owned by non-Swazis. Subsistence agriculture on Swazi National Land (SNL) is the primary activity of about 42 000 rural farmers who produce for their own consumption on plots averaging 3 ha which are allocated by chiefs. Major subsistence crops include maize, sorghum, groundnuts, beans, cotton, and tobacco. Swazis are traditionally pastoral and use cattle primarily for draught power, wealth, and social status, with some offtake of meat and milk for home consumption. At least 80% of the national herd is grazed on SNL grazing land which has led to overstocking and overgrazing.
The generally recognized basic residential and economic unit in the rural areas is the Swazi “umuti” or homestead, which is not quite equivalent to either a household or village. Land within a homestead is allocated to men once they are married. It is estimated that between 80% and 90% of all homesteads receive some income from formal sector employment. Some men work as unskilled labourers in agriculture, others in the mines of South Africa. Men are returning to rural areas to take up farming because of the insecure job market. These men will often practise a mixture of subsistence and cash-crop farming.
Women remain in the rural homesteads and face a lack of manpower to both farm and perform household duties. Women make up 70% of the rural workforce. They plant, weed, and harvest crop. Women also manage family vegetable gardens, some of them irrigated and therefore year-round, and are involved in such income-generating activities as poultry and handicrafts. Women need better organization within the handicrafts' sector to overcome marketing problems associated with low producer prices and high middlemen markups. A woman must also have the signature of her husband in order to obtain credit.
Agricultural development on SNL has been slow and must compete with higher wages in the modern sector, although wage earning opportunities have been fewer in the late 1980s. In the 1970s, Government initiated the Rural Development Areas Programme (RDA) to improve agricultural performance through incentives and support, including farm inputs, improved techniques, extension services, credit, and promotion of marketing. RDA activities included many small irrigation schemes.
Under the RDA Programme, small-scale fish-farming was promoted as one of many crops using a training and visit type extension system with assistant fisheries officers acting as subject matter specialists at the District level. In addition, three fish hatcheries were built, two in the highveld and one in the lowveld, to provide fingerlings to farmers. By the time the RDA Programme ended in the early 1980s, it was reported that there were an estimated 800 family fish ponds averaging 150 m2 producing about 25 t/ha/year (Chondoma, 1987). No well-defined system of fish-farming was promoted. Most ponds were stocked with both carp and tilapias in the lowveld and Lubombo areas. Demonstrations of fish-farming associated with animals were given at the hatcheries but were never taken up by farmers. In addition, small fishery groups were organized to exploit many of the reservoirs and were given equipmen and training.
In 1984 (latest figures available) an estimated 150 t of fish were produced in Swaziland from fisheries and aquaculture activities, although this may be an overestimate. Imports of canned and frozen fish are significant, but the actual tonnage is not known. There is potential on the biotechnological side to significantly increase fish production through aquaculture, although exploitation of this capacity may not in all cases be economic. Chondoma (1987) reviews the nutritional need for fish and concludes that aquaculture in rural communities could make a significant contribution to improving access to protein, although nutritional needs far exceed the potential production of fish through aquaculture.
The National Food Policy and Development objective under the current (1983/84 to 1987/88) five-year development plan is to assist Swazi farmers to achieve higher productivity and income and become oriented toward the market place. The fisheries development objectives within this plan are to:
promote rearing of fish by providing services to farmers for pond construction and stocking;
encourage interest in fishing by stocking rivers and reservoirs.
In line with these objectives, the Fisheries Section is undertaking three major activities:
renovation and expansion of the three existing hatcheries to produce 55 000 carp fingerlings/year;
a campaign to stock all rivers and reservoirs in the high- and middleveld areas;
construct and stock 100 family fish ponds annually.
However, the Fisheries Section is beset by a number of major constraints which prevent full implementation of these activities:
lack of adequate numbers of trained manpower;
low priority of fisheries and fish-farming within the agriculture sector and thus a low level of support from Government;
inadequate hatchery infrastructure;
poor economic viability of existing family ponds, due to the high opportunity cost of labour, predation, and lack of a defined and demonstrated fish-farming system.
On the positive side, the Fisheries Section has been incorporated into a well organized and effective rural extension service which is not being used to its full potential to promote fish-farming.
At this point in time it is believed that there are fewer than the 800 reported active family ponds. No production records have been collected by the Ministry of Agriculture since the end of RDA. All three hatcheries are no longer functioning. The reservoir fishery groups have all disbanded due to the deterioration of their equipment. No follow-up on this activity has been carried out. The general status of the capture fishery in Swaziland is not known but production appears to be low. Reservoir construction falls under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy; liaison with the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives on fishery matters has not been established.
Of the Fisheries Section establishment of 3 senior officers and 4 district-level officers, 2 senior posts are filled (one is overseas for specialized post-graduate training) and 3 district posts are filled. As a result of this and lack of operating funds, Fisheries Section involvement in fish-farming development activities is at a standstill.
The Fisheries Section has identified four priority target areas for further investigation under the scope of the Programme: information needs; women and nutrition; strengthening of extension services already integrated with agriculture; and survey and exploitation of small water-bodies.
The mission visited a number of rural fish-farming sites in Lubombo District and has evaluated fish-farming activities in this District in relation to the priority target areas. It is proposed that a multi-phase pilot project be undertaken in Lubombo District. It will address the first three of the four priority target areas mentioned above. The overall objective of this pilot project will be to document the relative social and nutritional benefits of rural small-scale fish-farming as currently practised in the District and give the existing extension service the capability to help farmers build on these practices with a minimum of additional national or international resources.
(a) Survey of Fish-Farming in Lubombo District. Small-scale pond-based fish culture was initiated in this District through the agricultural extension service in the early 1980s. Since the end of the RDA project and the destruction of the Nyetene Fish Hatchery, little has been done to follow up on the small-scale fish-farmers in this District. Yet many of these fish ponds are still functioning, although the exact management practices, results, and distribution of benefits are not known. It would also be interesting to know how farmers have coped with the lack of fingerling supply from the Government hatcheries.
A brief survey could be undertaken to update records on the location and status of fish ponds in the area and gather information on the economic and social status of these ponds within the rural household and community. The survey would be a modified version of the survey method currently being developed in Zambia. It would require the services of one Programme Aquaculturist, one national Assistant Fisheries Officer and one national Sociologist for about one month, based in Siteki. The Area Extension Officers and the Area Field Officers would be asked to collaborate with the project. One four-wheel drive vehicle and access to time on an IBM-compatible micro-computer would also be necessary. The existing resources of the Ministry of Agriculture and the University of Swaziland should be mobilized to assist with this phase.
One of the uses of the results of this survey would be to identify the nature and importance of women's involvement in fish-farming activities and how these activities relate to family nutrition. Lack of food is a problem in rural areas, and the production of fish will have an impact on the quality and quantity of food available, especially for children. Rural children very rarely eat meat; the 1983–84 nutritional survey shows 30% of children under five years of age are chronically malnourished, rising to 42% in the 18–24 month age group. Having ponds close to the house will also make it easier for mothers to tend their children and the ponds. The objective would be to formulate extension messages which promote women's involvement and nutritional improvement in a meaningful and beneficial manner. This work would be carried out as a part of the analysis of the survey data and require more in-depth participatory surveys in the District. Such surveys would be complementary to the qualitative study on family nutrition currently being undertaken by the Home Economics Unit using household interviews and observations, as a follow-up to the national nutritional survey.
(b) Strengthening of Extension Service and Rehabilitation of Fish-Farming Practices. Rural farmers in Lubombo District have learned about fish-farming through the existing training and visit type of agricultural extension service and the home Economists/Nutrionists of the Home Economics Unit, where fish-farming is one of a number of specialized subject areas. In the agricultural extension service, the Fisheries Specialist in the Lubombo District Agricultural Office in Siteki prepares monthly messages for frontline Field Officers to deliver to fish-farmers. The Home Economics Unit has a Home Economics Supervisor in each District and a total of 35 Home Economists/ Nutritionists at the area level. They organize short seminars and longer nine-month courses with rural women to promote nutrition, vegetable gardens, poultry, fish-farming, handicrafts, sewing, knitting, planting fruit trees, and hygiene. Since 1980 about 60 rural women from three Districts have participated in these training activities annually.
One objective of this phase will be to give the Fisheries Specialist a better idea of what type of fish-farming is being practised by area farmers and how he can tailor his technical message to their needs. It will draw on the results of the first phase to help formulate the extension messages. The survey methods developed in the first phase will be used to create an ongoing monitoring system so that both the field officers and the Fisheries Specialist can evaluate the results of the extension activities, help farmers solve their problems, and gradually reduce the intervention of extension services in fish-farming. In this regard, an effort will be made to create and/or utilize local community-based organizations to take on the fish-farming services initially provided by Government.
A second objective will be to devise and implement a pond culture system appropriate to the areas within the District based on information gathered in the Phase One survey. This may include methods for local production and distribution of fingerlings.
(c) Expansion Phase. The first two phases will have developed and demonstrated solutions to the social and technical issues surrounding small-scale rural aquaculture as currently practised in Lubombo District. They will also have developed within the Ministry of Agriculture the expertise to carry out similar rehabilitation exercises in other Districts in the country using the existing extension services. This phase will see the expansion of Phase One and Two activities to other areas and Districts with modifications as necessary to meet slightly different social and environmental circumstances.
For the fourth priority target area, survey and use of reservoirs, the mission could not identify any potential pilot project activities which could be carried out under the approach of the Programme.
A detailed description of the proposed three-phase pilot project is given in Appendix 2. At the national level, this pilot project should lead to an improved and sustainable production of fish in the Maphungwane Area at minimum additional administrative expense to Government. The methods developed and experiences gained may be applicable to other Rural Development Areas with potential for small-scale fish culture in ponds. At the regional level, this pilot project will lead to a refinement of the survey methodology, elaboration and testing of factors relating to women's involvement and nutrition, and practical experience with approaching and improving fish-farming extension from within the agricultural extension system.
The mission has been able to gather and review a large amount of the available information on fish-farming in Maphungwane Area. Additional searches for specific information may be necessary as more detailed plans are formulated.
(a) Preparation
A survey methodology is being developed in Zambia. The evaluation of the first pilot testing of this survey methodology (in Northern Province, Zambia), which will be completed in February 1988, may yield some basic changes. Thereafter the survey would have to be modified for specific conditions in Swaziland. It is likely that this could be carried out based on the information gathered by the mission or requested from the Fisheries Section at a later date. The survey developed should be briefly field tested for suitability prior to full-scale application in Maphungwane Area.
A more thorough desk study of issues regarding women's involvement and nutrition should be carried out in tandem with the survey modification. Such a study would complement the 1983–84 national nutritional study and its household observation follow-up. It will help to identify important factors for inclusion in the survey and suggest an approach to take in the second phase of the pilot project.
National staff should be thoroughly briefed on the survey methodology at the beginning of the pilot project, and be given the opportunity to help adapt the methodology and resulting questionnaires to Swaziland.
(b) Organizational Framework
General responsibility for implementation of the pilot project should rest with the Fisheries Section in collaboration with the Agricultural Extension Service and the Home Economics Unit. Linkages between these units should be established at the Ministry, District, Area and homestead levels. The Programme's role is that of facilitator by providing technical advice and limited support.
Communications could be established with the Social Science Research Unit of the University of Swaziland to follow up on its interest to do research into the social aspects of rural fish-farming. The Research and Planning Unit of the Ministry of Agriculture should also be kept informed.
The recent national review of aquaculture in Tanzania (Balarin, 1985) is the most complete compilation available of the many reports and activities on aquaculture development in Tanzania. Some of this information has been updated in Lema and Angwazi (1987).
Agroclimatic zones in relation to aquaculture in Tanzania are based on water temperature with a direct correlation to altitude. Lowland areas below 500 m are best for year-round production of warmwater species such as tilapias. Plateau areas from 500 to 1 500 m can support 6–9 months warmwater species production, with growth reduction in the cooler months, suitable for tilapias and carp. Highland areas from 1 500 to 2 500 m are marginal for temperate and coldwater species. Mountain areas above 2 500 m are suitable only for coldwater species such as trout. Balarin (1985) gives a fish-farming zonation map based on these agroclimatic zones which shows large sections of central and northern Tanzania as plateau zones.
It is estimated that annual rainfall of 750 mm is necessary to support dryland agriculture in Tanzania, meaning that large parts of the central and northern areas of the country require irrigation to sustain cropping activities. Traditional irrigation schemes have developed in some regions, while adequate rainfall for fish-farming falls in the southern regions.
FAO has developed a land classification system based on use potential and rainfall. In the high potential regions of Morogoro, Iringa, Mbeya and Ruvuma, land is limited and intensification is the best way to increase agricultural production. Agriculture in the numerous medium potential regions requires mainly inputs for improved production. The low potential regions of Singida, Dodoma, Mtwara, and Lindi are limited by poor soil and low rainfall conditions. This classification system, while not specifically considering aquaculture, could be useful in choosing appropriate fish-farming methods at least from a technical point of view.
Rural farmers contribute 75% of the value of Tanzania's exports and 80% of its marketed cereals. Maize and cassava are the main crops grown, with sweet potatoes, bananas, plantains, rice, sorghum, millet, groundnuts, sesame, copra, soya, and sugar produced regionally. Cash crops include cotton, coffee, sisal, and tea. Cattle are not evenly distributed throughout the country and are generally overstocked in areas of concentration, being limited by water availability and tsetse fly occurrence. Traditional grazing practices are still widespread, leading to serious land degradation in some areas.
In 1982 there were about 150 000 ha of land under irrigation, 80% of which was in traditional small-holder schemes. There is an estimated potential to irrigate about one million hectares, but it is difficult to develop and there is a need for water storage reservoirs. There are 490 known dams, 51% of which are less than 0.5 ha in area. These are mostly used for stock watering and have high water turbidity.
There are many indigenous freshwater fish species in Tanzania, due to the presence of 3 major and 4 minor natural lakes. A number of indigenous tilapias or their hybrids have been tried unsuccessfully in fish-farming, including Oreochromis pangana, O. korogwe, O. ureolepis, O. esculentis, and O. variabilis, while Clarias mossambicus has given good results. Many species have been introduced and a few of these have become widespread in fish-farming, including O. niloticus, Tilapia zillii, Cyprinus carpio, Salmo trutta, and S. gairdneri, Other introduced and cultured species include O. leucostictus, O. macrochir, O. andersoni, O. niger, O. mossambicus, T. rendalli, and T. sparrmani. There has been no experience with mariculture in Tanzania.
The rural population, representing 90% of the total population, lives in 8 400 registered villages. Land belongs to the State and the average farm size is 2.5 ha. Village farms are organized in three different manners. A homestead consists of one family with one-half hectare or more of land growing crops of their own choice for their own use. A block farm is a set of small village-based holdings with crop planning done by village organizations. Collective farms are under the direction of the village authority, where benefits to farm members are distributed based on the contribution made to farm activities.
The exact extent and characteristics of small-scale fish-farming in Tanzania remain to be accurately identified. It appears that the greatest interest and development have occurred in the southern regions of Ruvuma, Mbeya, Lindi, and Mtwara using various tilapia species in small ponds, with an estimated 5 000 fish ponds currently active. No reliable production figures are available. Lema and Angwazi (1987) state that rural fish-farming takes place in family or communal ponds, roughly corresponding to the organization of village farms.
Total fish production for 1983 was estimated at 251 000 t, almost exclusively fished by artisanal fishermen in isolated settlements. About 85% of the catch is from fresh waters. Problems of transport and marketing prevent the distribution of this production to any distance from the fishing areas. Fishing output has been stagnant for many years and fishermen lack access to new gear and boats due to foreign exchange restrictions.
Increasing population and the higher per caput meat consumption necessary to improve nutrition result in projected protein needs far in excess of current production levels. A forecast for regional fish supply and demand found in Balarin (1985) indicates that Dodoma and Singida Regions will have a 24 900 t shortfall, Mtwara, Lindi, and Morogoro Regions will have a 32 200 t shortfall and Mbeya, Iringa, and Ruvuma Regions will have a 36 000 t surplus. However, a poor distribution system could prevent this surplus from reaching the rural inland population. There is below-average protein consumption in Lindi, Mtwara, Ruvuma, Kigoma, and Rukwa Regions, where 18–25% of children are moderately malnourished and 0.2–5% are severely malnourished.
The Division of Fisheries under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism has primary responsibility for developing fisheries and fish-farming at the national level. However, under the decentralization policy, work plans, development budgets, and staff deployment are handled by the Regional Development Directors and Regional Natural Resources Officers. Thus it is difficult to give a general picture of government activities in fish-farming development. However, it appears that only fisheries staff, who are stationed in large numbers at Regional and District levels, are directly involved in fish-farming development activities in the field. Many of these staff are graduates of one of the fisheries training institutes, although the Division of Fisheries makes no distinction between field staff with fisheries and fish-farming training and responsibilities.
There are 15 Government fish-farms for fingerling production and distribution but few if any are in operation. In the early 1980s a UNDP/FAO project was started to build a national pilot hatchery at Morogoro, but due to donor financial constraints the hatchery was never built. The Church of the Province of Tanzania operates a small arena-type hatchery in Dodoma District which apparently supplies fingerlings for farmers in all the southern Regions. Fisheries staff have no transport facilities, although vehicles can theoretically be provided through the Regional Development Directors.
US Peace Corps Volunteers are stationed at district or village level in Tanga, Iringa, Mbeya, and Ruvuma Regions. They work directly with rural farmers to promote small-scale fish-farming and have developed some extension materials.
Aquaculture first gained recognition in national development planning in the 1969–1974 Second 5-year Development Plan, and it has appeared as a low priority sector in subsequent plans. Lema and Angwazi (1987) outline three guiding policy statements:
aquaculture will be encouraged and developed, especially aquaculture integrated with animal and crop production;
the African Regional Aquaculture Centre (ARAC in Port Harcourt, Nigeria) will be utilized for information on applied research, training and extension, and training of senior staff;
accurate records on aquaculture production will be maintained for use in development planning.
The current Economic Recovery Programme, promulgated in June 1986, emphasizes the improved efficiency of resource use, increased export capacity, and improved productivity of small agricultural holdings.
The Division of Fisheries has proposed short-term (5 years), medium-term (10 years), and long-term (20 years) development plans for fish-farming, but generally insufficient development funds have been allocated on the national and regional levels. The current 5-year plan for 1987–88 to 1991–92 envisages a phased development of aquaculture capacity:
completion of the pilot fish-farm and hatchery at Morogoro; intensive breeding and quality seed production for distribution of fingerlings to farmers, using O. niloticus, C. carpio, and C. mossambicus;
popularization of fish culture in ponds integrated with animal production;
expansion of the pilot fish-farm at Morogoro to commercial fish production;
study of the feasibility of introducing mariculture in coastal areas and on the islands.
The Division of Fisheries has identified two priority areas under the scope of the Programme: information needs and design of surveys (primarily to enable effective use of resources), and extension and training.
After a brief review of background information and discussions with Government officials, the mission identified the area comprised of parts of the southern Regions (Iringa, Lindi, Mbeya, Mtwara, Ruvuma) and Morogoro as being the most suitable area for potential pilot project activities. It is in parts of these regions that most small-scale rural aquaculture activities have taken place to date. In addition, the mission noted the large number of small-scale irrigation schemes in parts of Dodoma and Singida Regions, fish deficit areas adjacent to the southern Regions where small-scale aquaculture might be possible, with a high potential nutritional impact. The consideration of target areas and pilot project activities is limited in this report to the areas mentioned above. The mission was able to visit fish-farming sites in Dodoma and Morogoro Regions where limited activities have taken place.
It is the conclusion of the mission that there are four potential issues under the two identified target areas which could be addressed by pilot project activities. These issues are interrelated and may be presented as a progression of activities.
Under this target area there are two issues: status and results of small-scale fish-farming in southern Tanzania, and dissemination of experimental fish-farming development information to the Regions.
In southern Tanzania a number of fish-farming development activities are taking place. They are in almost all cases donor-financed and executed through non-governmental or voluntary organizations (US Peace Corps, Church of the Province of Tanzania, ODA, Evangelical Lutheran Church). The office of the Director of Fisheries is active in promoting development of the National Aquaculture Centre at Morogoro.
One attempt was made recently (Kenworth, 1986) to gather together participants in these projects to share experiences, but no follow-up action has taken place. In fact little is known of these fish-farming efforts outside the area concerned. It is reported that rural fish-farming in the area is substantial in scope, with most of Tanzania's estimated 5 000 rural fish ponds found in this part of the country. It would therefore be useful to establish the results, especially the extent of long-term sustainable benefits (nutritional and otherwise) to the communities concerned.
The initial study should probably be a combination of a structured interview of farmers (e.g., a modification of the Programme's survey method) and interviews with extension workers, fishery staff, and community leaders. The results of the study are likely to point out useful approaches in extension work and indicate possible improvements. These could form the basis for later pilot projects.
(a) Small-Scale Production of Fingerlings. Production and distribution of quality fingerlings appears to be a major problem for small-scale fish-farming development in southern Tanzania. The principal source of fingerlings is reported to be at Hombolo in Dodoma Region, some 300 km north of the central part of the southern area. The headquarters of the Division of Fisheries plans to establish a national centre at Morogoro. The Division also intends that all Regions will have regional fish-farms, although it is not clear, due to lack of funding, when these will become operational. An alternative would be to promote small, community-based or private sources of fingerlings in areas where small-scale fish-farming has already been established. The survey mentioned in Section 3.3.1 could be used to identify whether any such activity has already taken place, and whether there are any interested communities or individuals. The aim would be to find a reliable method to give farmers access to quality fingerlings in a timely manner and at reasonable cost. A scheme to this effect might be tested as a pilot project.
(b) Fish-Farming in Association with Irrigation Schemes. There are a large number of traditional river-based irrigation schemes and modern irrigation projects in southern and central Tanzania. Many of these occur in the low rainfall areas where people suffer from poor nutrition and have especially low protein intake. Reportedly, little has been done to promote any type of fish production in association with these projects. While each scheme must be carefully considered for its fish production potential, the impact on nutrition could be relatively high for even a modest fish output. Demonstration of methods to produce fish as a complementary activity in irrigation schemes might help convince irrigation planners to include fish production in the planning and implementation process.
(c) Organization of Extension Effort. Given the decentralization of development planning and implementation, the Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism, through the office of the Director of Fisheries in Dar-es-Salaam, has mainly a supporting role. The Ministry directly runs fisheries training institutes and is the channel for any training of fisheries staff outside Tanzania. However, as the institutes are not well-equipped to train fisheries staff in fish-farming, and since there is no modern commercial aquaculture sector, the regional fisheries staff generally lack personal experience in fish-farming. This in turn may lead to opportunities for fish-farming going unexploited.
However, the situation might improve if it were possible for the Ministry to:
use those of their staff who have received specialized training in aquaculture to give practical instruction in fish-farming to regional officers from relevant departments (fisheries, agriculture, irrigation, community development) through workshops;
encourage District Development Directors to use their regional and district fishery officers as resource persons, that is as advisers to those in agriculture, irrigation, and community development who have funds to assist with development of rural communities.
The office of the Director of Fisheries could support this strategy by acting as a fish-farming development coordinator, with emphasis on the collection and dissemination of information and experiences on small-scale fish-farming. This office would need access to and control of a fish-farming centre in order to be able to provide training possibilities for fishery officers and to ensure that any technological modifications are well proven.
The Programme might want to consider pilot project activities in the form of Ministerial fish-farming workshops for regional officers, and assistance in the mechanics of information collection and dissemination.
The issues identified above do not constitute pilot project proposals themselves, but rather a suggestion of areas where more detailed investigations may lead to preparation of pilot project activities. It is proposed, therefore, that the Programme assist the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania to investigate the potential for promoting small-scale rural fish-farming along the linesoutlined in the four issue areas, through further detailed studies and planning of pilot projects.
The mission did not describe any proposed pilot project, only plans for preparing pilot projects as given below.
The investigation and planning activities which could lead to the preparation of one or more pilot projects can be generally described as follows:
Calling together in a short conference in a Regional centre of representatives of agencies with fish-farming development activities in southern Tanzania: regional Development Directors, Natural Resources Officers, Fishery Officers from southern Tanzania, and senior officers responsible for fish-farming development in the Division of Fisheries headquarters. The aim of the meeting, as a follow-up to the 1986 Aquaculture Development Conference held in Dodoma, would be to inform participants of the activities of the Programme in southern Tanzania, learn about ongoing development activities, and bring together through personal contact the main participants in fish-farming development and general regional development. Representatives of development projects would be asked to present descriptive papers on their activities and results. The Programme would plan its upcoming schedule of activities in southern Tanzania with participants as described below.
Identification of the fish-farming systems practised in southern Tanzania, the process of extension used to promote them, and the best indicators for measuring results.
In-depth field surveys and studies of the fish-farming systems identified in southern Tanzania to gather detailed data related to the important factors identified in (b) above and the impact of development activities on rural people; the Olivetti M-24 microcomputer and the computer trained staff based at the Division of Fisheries headquarters would be useful for analysing the information gathered.
Documentation of fish-farming development successes and dissemination through regional fishery staff to Regional Development Directors and others involved or with potential involvement in fish-farming development.
Based on the survey results and interest generated by (d) above, identification and planning of pilot projects related to small-scale fingerling production and fish-farming in association with irrigation schemes; as far as possible, these pilot projects should utilize regional fishery staff in an advisory role.
To accomplish these tasks it is proposed that a longer term (two months, not necessarily consecutive) mission consisting of a Programme Aquaculturist and Socio-economist be fielded. This mission should have full-time access to transport and be accompanied by one or more members of the Division of Fisheries headquarters staff.
The recent national review of aquaculture in Zimbabwe (Balarin, 1984) is now substantially out-of-date and contains little information on the status of small-scale rural aquaculture, yet it is the most comprehensive review of this sector available. Additional information has been gleaned for recent locally published reports (Evans, 1986; Chimbuya and Shonhiwa, 1987; Minsull, 1987; Mushaike, 1987) and discussions with Government representatives.
Agroclimatic zones in relation to aquaculture have been devised based on water temperature as influenced by altitude, latitude, and local climatic conditions (Balarin, 1984). The Eastern Highlands are most suitable for year-round culture of cold water species; the Zambezi and Limpopo Valleys are most suitable for year-round culture of warmwater species; the Central Plateau and bordering areas are suitable for temperate species or warmwater species with 2–3 months overwintering. Rains generally fall during 5–6 months of the summer season (November to April) resulting in most rivers and streams being seasonal. Fish-farming in various forms has been tried in all three of these zones.
There are 114 indigenous and 31 introduced fish species in Zimbabwe. Of the indigenous species, Oreochromis macrochir, O. mossambicus, Tilapia rendalli, Clarias gariepinus, and Serranochromis robustus are important to aquaculture. Salmo gairdneri, Micropterus salmoides, Cyprinus carpio, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, and Procambrus spp. have been successfully introduced for aquaculture. Some hybrid tilapia crosses have been produced for all-male culture.
Zimbabwe agriculture is carried out by two distinct sectors, occupying 75% of the total population. The modern commercial sector comprises farms over 500 ha in size covering about 16 million ha in total. Maize, wheat, groundnuts, soybean, cotton, tobacco, coffee, tea, and sugar are grown using sophisticated farming practices characterized by high fertilizer and energy inputs. About 155 000 are irrigated allowing year-round production.
Communal subsistence farms comprising 760 000 households cover 16 million ha generally characterized as poor agricultural land, with shallow soils prone to erosion. Communal lands are generally overcrowded (holding 62% of the population), overgrazed and low-yielding compared to commercial lands. Subsistence crops of maize, groundnuts, wheat, and soybean are grown using traditional methods. About 20% of the subsistence crops and some cotton and tobacco are grown for cash, currently 11 600 ha of communal land are irrigated, with a threefold increase planned.
Since independence there has been a significant increase in maize and cotton output from communal lands, attributed to improved extension services to communal land farmers and a larger area under production. However, it is recognized that large tracts of land in both sectors, up to 50% in some years, lies idle, and that great potential for increasing agricultural output lies in bringing more land into production.
Communal farm households may also experience a lack of manpower when male household members temporarily leave their families on the farm to seek wage employment in urban areas.
Livestock is important to both sectors. The commercial cattle herd is smaller than the communal cattle herd but of much greater economic importance, while the communal cattle herd has a high wealth and status value. As a result the amount of meat in the rural family's diet is low.
Fishing and aquaculture activities can also be classified along modern-commercial and communal-subsistence lines. Fish-farming in Zimbabwe originated to stock reservoirs and rivers with game fish. Recently a number of commercial farmers have taken up intensive pond culture of tilapias and a few other species as a way to diversify farming operations. They appear to have done this with a minimum of government input. Communal subsistence fish-farming in ponds was first promoted by the agriculture extension service in 1974. There are now an estimated 2 000 subsistence ponds with low yields producing tilapias and catfish for home consumption.
Fishing in reservoirs is an important source of fish in Zimbabwe. There are 120 large reservoirs (over 13 ha) and about 8 000 small dams (75% on private farms) throughout the country. These have been built for water conservation and irrigation. Many have been stocked with fish and a variety of fishing techniques are used, including rigged boats, gillnets, seine nets, rod and line, traps, and baskets. However, there is no reliable estimate of the catch or potential fishery resource of these reservoirs, other than a few of the larger water-bodies.
The mission identified four Government Ministries which are involved in fish-farming development in the communal sector:
Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism through the Aquatic Ecology Branch of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management (DONPWM);
Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Settlement through the Agriculture Technical and Extension Service (Agritex);
Ministry of Community Development and Women's Affairs through its Village Community Workers;
Ministry of Youth, Sports and Culture through individual projects.
The DONPWM has six fishery research stations, some of which include research and/or seed production activities in support of communal aquaculture. DONPWM has recently started to support communal fish-farming development in Nyanga and Chilimanzi areas through direct technical assistance to farmers. However, DONPWM is not currently supporting this activity and is seeking funds to supplement this work. DONPWM officers work out of the research stations, and four of these officers have specific aquaculture training.
Agritex has one Agriculture Extension Officer specialized in aquaculture and fisheries, who is based in Harare. This officer travels extensively to visit District-based Agriculture Extension Officers and assist them promote fish-farming development. Agritex has organized a number of short training courses for District and frontline extension staff in the areas where fish-farming is promoted. It has also produced an extension manual and a number of videotapes on fish-farming in communal areas. Agritex also surveys small reservoirs for fishery potential through stock assessment, determining the proper net mesh size and fishing frequency, and encouraging group exploitation of public reservoirs in communal areas.
The Village Community Workers under the Ministry of Community Development and Women's Affairs work to mobilize development through people's participation at the village and district level. Their work focuses on agriculture development, with aquaculture viewed as a complementary farming activity. This is especially so for the family because of the low-labour intensity and potential to significantly improve family nutrition. These workers must look to DONPWM and Agritex for technical support.
In 1980 (latest figures available) an estimated 23 000 t of fish were produced in Zimbabwe, 800 t of this from aquaculture activities. However, these data are not reliable since the only systematic collection of landings occurs on a few of the larger reservoirs. Imports of fish are limited by scarce foreign exchange, and come to no more than 2 000 t/annum. The total fish available in Zimbabwe is far short of the estimated fish protein needs of the population.
The current national agriculture policies, as summarized by Chimbuya and Shonhiwa (1987) are to:
diversify food production especially at the rural level;
ensure self-sufficiency in food with some surplus for sale;
encourage establishment of communal development projects.
Development plans within the DONPWM for the fisheries and aquaculture sector, as summarized by Chimbuya and Shonhiwa (1987) are to:
establish an aquaculture extension programme with qualified specialist fish-farming extension staff in each of the eight provinces and training of frontline extension staff;
establish a seed production centre in each province including seed transport facilities from centre to farmer;
utilize all major sources of water and irrigation schemes to produce fish, especially through the inclusion of aquaculture activities in all new reservoir and irrigation projects;
establishment of the planned Mtilikwe National Aquaculture Centre as a demonstration, training, research, and seed production facility, pending identification of funding.
The small-scale fish-farming sector in Zimbabwe has suffered from the isolation and instability of the country during UDI, such that no seed production or aquaculture research facilities are currently in operation. In addition, the sector receives little financial support from Government or donors. The proliferation of responsibility for this sector among a number of ministries does not help to remedy this situation.
It is firmly believed, however, by many of those active in Zimbabwe's small-scale fish-farming sector, that the abundant resources and high motivation of the people could make this a productive sector in the future.
The DONPWM has identified three priority target areas for further investigation under the scope of the Programme: information needs and design of surveys; utilization of small water-bodies; and aquaculture in farming systems.
The mission visited rural fish-farmers and fishermen in two areas, two fisheries research stations which have had some aquaculture activities, and one women's fish-retailing cooperative. However, the vast geographical size of Zimbabwe and the great variation in fish-farming practices made it impossible to obtain, in one week, a complete impression of rural fish-farming as it stands today. In addition, there exists no current source of written information and data on this subject, and not all of the many sources were thoroughly investigated.
The impression of the mission is that good development work in rural small-scale fish-farming has been undertaken in Zimbabwe in the last decade, but that this work is not well documented or known to others. Zimbabwe's experiences in promoting fish-farming through the existing agriculture extension service and the development of small reservoir fisheries could be very useful to other countries in Africa. At the same time, there may be scope to improve the effectiveness of these services.
It is proposed, therefore, that the Programme assist the Government of Zimbabwe to document the process and results of the rural fish-farming services and activities currently being undertaken, with a view to planning pilot project activities to improve these services and demonstrate to other countries that these methods are viable. The documentation and planning activities may also help Government to resolve the dilemma of having many ministries responsible for fish-farming.
It should be noted that while the documentation and planning activities will be information-gathering oriented, they will include the small water-body and farming system sectors which are also of priority to Government.
The mission did not describe any proposed pilot projects, only plans for preparing pilot projects as given below.
The documentation and planning activities which would lead to the preparation of one or more pilot project proposals might be described generally as follows:
field visits to major areas of communal fish-farming and reservoir fishing activities;
identification of the fish-farming systems practised, the process of extension used to promote them, and the best indicators for measuring results;
in-depth field surveys and studies of these fish-farming systems to gather detailed data related to the important factors identified above and the impact of the development activities on rural people;
description through reports of the rural fish-farming experience in Zimbabwe for use both nationally in developing plans and regionally in disseminating information on useful methods;
recommendations on how to improve the fish-farming development techniques and services rendered to communal farmers, to be tested and demonstrated through pilot projects.
To accomplish this, it is proposed that a longer-term (one month) mission consisting of a Programme Aquaculturist and Socio-Economist be fielded using a Programme vehicle from Lusaka. It would be necessary for Government to assign professional staff currently involved in rural aquaculture development to work with the mission.
