Mary K. Munson, Extension Specialist, 4-H/Youth
University of Illinois Champaign, Illinois, United States of America
Introduction
When the world's knowledge of a subject increases through experience and scientific investigation, the subject often is unique enough to become an area of study on it's own. This is the situation in the field of 4-H youth development education. It includes the interdisciplinary application of knowledge areas that help a professional design, implement and evaluate non-formal experiential educational activities and experiments where youth can develop desired life skills. As the field of study develops, sub-specialties emerge and are clarified. The evolution has taken place within 4-H youth development education.
Defining the areas of study in the field of 4-H Youth Development Education is the purpose the Professional Research and Knowledge Base (4hprk). Through the work of practitioners and researchers, the sub-specialties are becoming more clear as the field has evolved to the end of the twentieth century The 4hprk taxonomy is an attempt to delineate the knowledge and skills needed by professionals in the field.
The first 4hprk taxonomy found in Annex I included five sub-specialties or domains. They are communication, educational design, youth development, youth programme management and volunteerism.
Competencies included in "communication" included skills in the various means of communication and the use of the various information technologies. The "educational design" domain was the sub-specialty related to educational research and applications such as needs assessment, teaching skills, curriculum design, and evolution. "Youth development" was the knowledge of physical, psychological and emotional, social, moral and cognitive development and current youth issues. "Youth programme management" related to skills for establishing and maintaining structures and systems to develop and deliver programmes for youth. "Volunteerism" dealt with skills related to delivering a programme through adult volunteers, including all aspects of the volunteer staffing cycle and adult development and learning.
The following material was adapted from 4hprk: A Professional Research and Knowledge Taxonomy for 4-H Youth Development, a draft publication of the 4hprk Review Committee in the U.S.A., 1995.
Background
In 1986, Extension Service-USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) provided funding to The Ohio State University and Mississippi State University to identify and define the areas of knowledge and research upon which 4-H youth development programmes are based. One of the most widely used products of those efforts was the 4-H professional research and knowledge taxonomy, commonly referred to as 4hprk. The original work laid a clear foundation for the practice of 4-H youth development work and answered critics who suggested that such work had no academic base.
The 4hprk taxonomy also established a framework for the cataloguing and access of research and knowledge sources relevant to the practice of 4-H Youth Development work. In partnership with the National Association of Extension 4-H Agents (NAE4-HA), the National Agricultural Library (NAL) was charged with the responsibility of building and indexing a database of relevant research and knowledge to be housed at their facility. Shortly thereafter, the National Association of Extension 4-H Agents adopted the 4hprk taxonomy as a foundation for providing professional improvement opportunities to its members. Many states currently utilize the taxonomy as basis for hiring qualifications, staff specialization, creation of academic programmes, and staff development.
The revision process
In 1994, the National Association of Extension 4-H Agents in partnership with the USDA's Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES) and National 4-H Council's Strengthening Our Capacity to Care Project (funded by the DeWitt Wallace Reader's Digest Fund) initiated a joint project to review and revise the taxonomy to support current practice. A 4hprk review committee outlined the following purposes that a revised taxonomy is intended to serve. The taxonomy should:
· identify the research and knowledge that supports contemporary practice,· communicate the relevance of a unique combination of research and knowledge from various disciplines, that
· support and guide the advancement of the youth development profession.
In the spring of 1995, the review committee used input from a nationwide survey of state 4-H programme leaders and state agent association presidents to synthesize a revised taxonomy of 4-H youth development professional research and knowledge.
Criteria for domains
The revised taxonomy (Annex II) is comprised of five interrelated domains. Four domains undergird the model by defining four broad areas of knowledge and research drawn upon in contemporary youth development practice. The fifth domain, volunteerism, focuses on utilizing the knowledge and research of the other four domains as well as research done in volunteerism and nonprofits to develop and utilize volunteers to conduct 4-H youth development programmes.
A domain is defined as a significant body of knowledge utilized by a professional to influence and sustain positive environments for youth development. A domain must meet the following criteria:
· support the mission, vision, outcomes, and action plans of the National 4-H Strategic Plan (Focus on the Future: A Strategic Plan for 4-H and Youth Development, USDA/CES, October 1994),· help define the parameters of the field of youth development,
· identify a core area of research and knowledge, and
· define a major area of learning appropriate for entry into the profession.
Definitions of the five domains
The five domains are defined as follows:
· Youth and Adult Development -
Understanding and applying knowledge of growth and development over the life-span in the creation of environments which optimize human potential.
· Learning Strategies for Youth Development - Understanding and applying learning theory in the design and evaluation of learning experiences for positive youth development.
· Organizational Systems for Youth Development - Understanding and applying knowledge of systems through which organizations manage resources at all levels in fulfilment of their missions.
· Partnerships for Youth Development - Understanding and applying knowledge of process and contextual factors which enhance the ability of members of a community to work together to improve the quality of life for youth and their families.
· Volunteerism for Youth Development - Integrating knowledge of human development, learning strategies, organizational systems, and partnerships as well as research in volunteerism and nonprofits to prepare and support volunteers in the achievement of individual and organizational goals for creating positive environments for youth development.
An inclusive model
The revised 4hprk taxonomy uses an inclusive approach to support the positive growth and development of young people. It is ecological in that it recognizes relationships between a young person and his or her environment. It is contextual in that it recognizes that young people grow and develop in a wide variety of surroundings and that the practice of 4-H youth development varies accordingly. The taxonomy similarly has relevance for youth development work done through a broad array of delivery modes.
Changes in the revised 4hprk taxonomy
The revision of 4hprk takes into consideration the shortcomings of the original five domains to prepare youth professionals for emerging needs and to reduce the areas of work not adequately covered in the original 4hprk taxonomy. Many of the shortcomings arose from the emergence of "youth issues" such as teen substance abuse, pregnancy, illiteracy, violence, stress, and suicide. But some others come with new ways 4-H youth programmes work, collaboratively with others interested in supporting youth. Still other weaknesses became evident as the taxonomy was put into use when confusion arose regarding where relevant content fit because it was not listed or it could be listed in more than one place.
The revised taxonomy includes all the knowledge and research areas in the original 4hprk but has redefined the domains. "Youth and Adult Development" takes the place of "Youth Development" and includes the knowledge of normal human development through the lifespan. Added to the domain were intergenerational relationships and resiliency and protective theory which refers to environmental and individual factors that help some youth succeed even when there are multiple factors that put them at risk.
"Learning Strategies" is the new name for the "Educational Design" domain. It adds the learning media, communication activities and delivery systems that were included in the "Communications" to this domain. It also addresses adult education which was previously part of "Volunteerism".
The new "Organizational Systems" domain was created to include the competency areas needed to create and maintain the Extension Service's 4-H youth organization through which to deliver programmes. Most of the topics were part of "Youth Programme Management" in the original 4hprk. Implementation strategies which include recruitment and retention of members, the management of clubs and groups, and the management skills involved in conducting events were clarified. Risk management and information management were added as needed skills to do this work.
The new domain of "Partnerships" was added to 4hprk to provide a repository for the knowledge areas needed to address youth needs from a community perspective as opposed to an organizational one. The content areas - understanding the community, collaboration and partnering, fund development, community capacity building and community volunteerism - are those needed to form community-wide initiatives for youth development.
The final domain "Volunteerism", which is included in both 4hprk taxonomies, is depicted differently in the new one to show it as the unique applications of content in the other domains to utilizing volunteers in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of programmes. For example, knowledge of youth and adult developmental stages is needed to design appropriate volunteer jobs, to create effective volunteer training, to provide personalized volunteer supervision and to meet their needs with volunteer recognition. These staffing processes are part of the human resource development content area in "Organizational Systems", but the principles are applied somewhat differently when "staff" are not receiving a salary. The domain also includes research in volunteerism and knowledge unique to volunteer programming.
Relating 4hprk to youth programmes in developing countries
The needs of today's young people in developing countries are not that different from those in other parts of the world. They face stress and pressures from a variety of sources including illiteracy, the need to produce income, sexual exploitation, sexually-transmitted diseases, and violence. They are frequently turning to alcohol and other substances of abuse as an escape. Transition from traditional to urbanized ways of life has caused rural youth to lose their grounding in values of their parents. Those who stay in rural areas as well as those who move to cities often lose their traditional role models and mentors for leadership skills and character development.
At the same time the traditional institutions are under great stress. Many countries have a variety of government agencies, non-governmental organizations attempting to provide programmes and services for youth. Often these programmes lack coordination, so that there is duplication in some areas and no assistance in others. Programme quality varies as well. Very seldom are local citizens involved in decision making nor are they urged to take ownership for the programmes.
These environments for youth programmes in developing countries indicate the need for research and knowledge that goes far beyond cultural practices in growing improved varieties of wheat or rice and preparing nutritional meals from local food sources. Youth may need these skills today, but even more importantly they need life skills that serve them well in the changing conditions they'll face tomorrow. Communities need youth workers who are skilled in forming coalitions of the various youth-serving groups to develop common approaches and shared responsibility for programming with youth. They need to expand the involvement of local citizens to the solutions of youth issues and to create a volunteer leader base.
Thus, the professional research and knowledge base for a developing country may well have similar domains and content to the revised one recently drafted in the United States. Programmes for rural youth should have workers who understand and can apply the research on human development across the lifespan and teach it to others who work with youth and adults. They should have skills in learning and teaching, so that they can not only teach effectively themselves, but they also can design experiential learning activities and lessons that can be led by volunteers or through distance learning technologies. They can develop internal organizations to acquire and manage resources, market and deliver programmes, and involve people in planning and carrying out programmes. Further these employees should be able to form collaborative efforts and partnerships with other organizations in communities which develop community initiatives to address youth issues. For these programmes to be far reaching and lasting, volunteerism seems essential. The youth development educator needs to know how to bring knowledge about involving volunteers to bear in conducting programmes to address youth needs.
Uses of the 4hprk research and knowledge base
4hprk is used in a variety of ways to strengthen the capacity of 4-H organizations to foster positive youth development. 4hprk provides structure for designing programmes of study for students intending to enter the youth development education field and graduate students wishing to enhance their skills. It is used as a guide in designing positions for workers who conduct youth development education programmes. It provides the basis for evaluating skills and creating in-service training programmes for youth workers. It helps professionals and organizations decide of specializations for the professionals. A taxonomy such as 4hprk provides a framework for classifying, cataloguing, and retrieving relevant research and practice information. It assists in identifying a research agenda appropriate to the field.
Designing academic programmes for youth development education
With a professional research and knowledge base as a guide, an organization can better describe the academic courses and/or programmes that will prepare workers desiring to enter the field. The ideal academic preparation for a 4-H youth programme leaders would have an interdisciplinary mix of classes in each of the specialties identified by 4hprk, and a minor preparation in a science area.
Agricultural universities in the United States have courses and degrees available to prepare students in human development, education and communications. Background related to supervision of employees has been found adaptable to volunteers, and many colleges are now offering classes in volunteerism. A few institutions offer programmes for non profit or youth programme management.
Since the kind of interdisciplinary curricula required for 4-H youth development education are not offered widely by academic institutions at present, 4hprk can help academic advisors assist students in evaluating and choosing a subject to study and electives from other subjects that will enhance competencies for domains not in the major course.
Some of the programmes that should be considered for post secondary study by youth development educators include: elementary, secondary and adult education; human development; business administration, communications, community development, or sociology They should add classes that build skills in the other competency areas listed in the taxonomy.
In the United States various levels of required education are prerequisite for work in youth development education. The dominate qualification level for years has been a bachelor's degree. Now, many states require a masters degree for entry into professional positions. In these cases, one degree in human development or education makes a lot of sense. Another degree in an interdisciplinary field such as community development can provide the rest of the preparation youth developers need.
Developing academic programmes of study in developing countries
For professional youth worker positions requiring a bachelor's degree, many developing nations have followed the precedents set by the originators of 4-H youth programmes in North America and Europe by requiring degrees in agriculture or home economics. These degrees often align with goals of transferring information related to agricultural and home sciences to the younger generation, often with the intent to reach adults in the community with this information.
Some of this information transfer is definitely needed by youth in the rural areas of developing countries. This need is most relevant for youth who are in their upper teens and adult years because they are able to access more resources and to make more decisions for themselves. However, it is not unusual in many traditional cultures for younger adults in their thirties to have most of their life decisions made by a parent or other family elder.
The United States discovered a generation or more ago that younger members can benefit from 4-H and other youth programmes. For them the content of information they are taught becomes less relevant for a couple of reasons. First, the information in the world is rapidly expanding and becoming outdated in just a few years, so that by the time a young person is old enough to make decisions for a farm or home, the information learned in the rural youth group is already out of date. Second, many of the young people who grow up on farms in rural areas will spend most of their adult lives off the farm, often in a city Youth in developing countries now live under similar conditions.
The solution to this dilemma for these non-formal youth programmes in the U.S. came as a byproduct of the information transfer-based programming. It was discovered that for many of the youth, the skills they learned through the youth programmes' activities lasted far beyond the period when the information was current, and they were transferable to many other situations.
These skills have been denoted "life skills" and are now the goal for many of the youth programmes. Life skills include methods of learning and evaluating information along with developing values toward continuing to learn. Thus this change in thrust from transferring information about agriculture and home sciences to utilizing these content areas and others as a basis for teaching skills experientially better serves the needs of these youth throughout their lifetimes.
As these new perspectives on the missions of youth programmes have gained prominence, it has become evident that youth workers need academic preparation beyond scientific training in the farm and home disciplines. They need to understand human development and learning strategies for experiential learning. Programme management skills and abilities to involve volunteers in developing, delivering and evaluating the programme for youth are required to reach young people in non-formal settings through volunteers. These areas of expertise seem as relevant for programmes in developing countries as they have been in the countries where 4-H and similar programmes emerged.
Developing position descriptions for youth development educators
A professional research and knowledge base is very useful in designing positions for workers in youth development education. It can be helpful in determining required experience and preparation. It can also aid in describing the scope of the work.
Administrators responsible for youth development programmes can use the research and knowledge base to design job descriptions that describe the work and the skills needed to do it. It will help them recruit and screen applicants who are best suited for the job.
Those who do not understand the complexity of the work of youth development education often assume the role is "relating well to young people" or "presenting information at a scaled down level". Neither of these images is accurate if the organization is seeking an educational programme leader who develops organizational systems, works closely with youth and adult leaders in programme development, and administration, designs educational methods and materials to teach youth experientially in non-formal settings and serves as a leader of those working on youth issues in communities. Finding individuals with the skills and temperament for these challenging responsibilities deserves much more careful planning than most organizations have given it in the past. A professional research and knowledge base gives programme administrators the tools to plan these jobs better and select those who can be effective in them.
Some organizations that have a tradition of youth professionals who are as responsible for teaching a subject related to agriculture or home sciences may wonder how to deal with the content the youth will study. One approach is to include youth as one of the audiences for all educators in the programme and expect them to work with the youth development educator in adapting their content to teaching youth experientially. This approach allows both educators to be specialized in their fields and contribute to the development of youth.
Another approach is to ask the youth development educator to have a minor technical qualification in a content area. This adds another competency to the long list required of youth developers and spreads them even thinner. There is still the need to work with specialists in all other subjects the youth may desire to learn to help these educators in adapting their subjects to youth.
Identifying in-service training needs
Most youth development education programmes have a corps of professional and/or paraprofessional workers whose responsibility it is to lead programmes at the local, area and central levels. A professional resource and knowledge base can be very useful in assessing needs of new and current staff. It can also be used to design in-service training.
The first step to using such a model with a research and knowledge base is to design a process to assess employees' current levels of skills in the content areas of each domain. The assessment process could include interviews, skill assessment stations, self reporting inventories, on the job evaluations or any means that will determine the areas of greatest need. A development plan can be devised to meet the identifies needs.
Once competency assessments are completed for the current staff, it will likely become evident that most staff need training in some of the competency areas. Part of the staff will need some areas, while others do not. Leaders in the organization will have to decide which competencies should be addressed over a multi-year period.
Individual development plans should address the content areas which are weakest and also important to the job the staff member is in. Some needs will be met by the in-service classes the organization offers. For others, the employee may need to take a course or class offered by someone else or design a self study project. Often competencies can be built by learn-as-you go on a new assignment or activity.
A similar process should be used to identify needs of new employees. An interview can be effective in targeting orientation training to specific needs. However, at least, in the years until more appropriate academic programmes can be created, most new employees will need a survey of all the domains identified in the field. It's a good practice to start by helping new workers understand the field they are entering by reviewing the taxonomy and the role of a youth development educator. Emphasize that this is an interdisciplinary field that draws from various areas of study It is the new worker's challenge to develop a basic level of competence in each of the domains important to his or her job.
Describing specializations for youth development educators
A taxonomy of competency areas for youth development professionals listed by domain is very useful in describing specializations of professionals in the field. It helps delineate the roles of specialists and clarifies the kind of preparation and/or additional education they should have to build competencies in the area. It also makes it easier to assign work with more assurance that the assignee has the skills and experience to handle it. It also lends itself well to forming teams with a higher level of skills in the essential content areas as defined by domains.
Several state 4-H programmes in the U.S.A. have chosen to use 4hprk domains as the basis for describing state 4-H programme specialist positions. It makes very good sense for the state to staff its programme with personnel who can support and create new knowledge in the areas of competency needed to programme for youth development education programmes. After six or more years, these states have found the specialties that correspond with 4hprk domains work well. The twelve North Central states have chosen to design their regional plan of work and collaborative support systems around 4hprk.
Several states have also developed specializations for their field-based extension educators (agents) to correspond to 4hprk domains. They often place staff so that at least one educator for each key specialty is located in each geographic area.
Cataloguing and accessing references for youth development education programmes
A taxonomy of the knowledge base for youth development education can be very useful in storing and retrieving information useful in programming. Whether developed for nonformal youth programmes or not, information that relates to some needed area can be identified with the appropriate domain. Then it can be retrieved more easily when needed.
The kinds of information to store and catalogue might include research reports, training manuals, lesson plans, member materials, model programmes, resource lists, instructions for implementing programmes, marketing pieces and background materials. These resources will help when making decisions, designing new programmes, implementing programmes and building competencies in staff.
In the 1990's the world wide web through internet makes it possible to search and retrieve information from anywhere in the world. Soon most youth programmes in developing countries should have the means to access internet, at least in larger cities. A research and knowledge base will help one identify key words to search across international boundaries and retrieve useful information needed quickly and at low cost.
The National Association of Extension 4-H Agents in the U.S.A. has used 4hprk to identify the primary focus of articles in its publication, seminars, poster sessions and research reports at its national conferences to help practitioners select what to read or attend. Similar cataloguing could be used more widely in conferences. Juries of professionals, selected for their experience and skill in the specific domain area, review all seminars, poster sessions and research reports, rating the significance of the proposed presentation. Only those deemed relevant and of high quality are accepted.
Identifying research needs and solutions
Problems facing the youth development staff can lead to identification of research that is needed for programmes to be effective. Sometimes it is difficult to state the problem as a researchable question and sell the need to an individual or organization who can do the research.
A research and knowledge base can help with this problem. The following steps will help youth programmes develop research. Locate a domain where the problem might relate. Use the knowledge areas in the domain to define the problem and think about who might have expertise in it. If you have the personnel and resources to conduct research yourself, the taxonomy will help you look for similar studies and programmes.
Conclusion
A professional research and knowledge base can enhance the quality and status of youth development education programmes wherever they are in the world. A base helps design roles for and train professionals. It helps professionals understand the total picture of youth development education. It also helps develop respect for the high skill levels required in the field. Following are questions leaders of youth programmes in developing countries might ask as they design a professional research and knowledge base:
· What is our youth programme's mission?· What skills are needed to prepare today's youth for tomorrow's conditions in our country?
· What kind of programmes will help youth develop the skills they'll need?
· In what environment is our youth programme functioning? What, if any changes do we expect in the near future?
· What implications do the changing needs of young people and organizational situation have for our nation's research and knowledge base in youth development education?
· What domains will be comprehensive and yet specific enough to describe the competencies or knowledge needed to deliver high quality, relevant programmes to our country's youth?
Annex 1: 4-H professional research and knowledge taxonomy
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Communication |
Educational Design |
Youth Development |
Youth Program Management |
Volunteerism | ||||||
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Interpersonal skills |
Institutional framework |
Psychological and emotional development of preadolescence, adolescence, and late adolescence |
Administrative planning |
Staffing | ||||||
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Group skills |
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CES philosophy and mission |
Physical development of preadolescence, adolescence, and late |
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Organizational development |
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Models | |||
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Verbal skills |
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4-H philosophy and mission |
adolescence |
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Adapting to change |
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Roles | |||
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Presentation skills |
Needs assessment |
Includes: |
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Strategic planning |
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Relationships | ||||
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Written skills |
Program design |
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Fitness |
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Plans of work |
Recruitment | ||||
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Nonverbal skills |
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Learning theory |
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Coordination |
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Decision making |
Training and development | |||
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Listening skills |
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Adult |
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Health |
Organization |
Supervision | |||
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Information technology (see Teaching techniques) |
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Youth |
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Physical changes |
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Advisory committee |
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Motivation | |
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Audio/Radio |
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Teaching strategies |
Social-moral development of preadolescence, adolescence, and late adolescence |
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Theory and design |
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Performance appraisal | ||
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Video/Television |
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Adult |
Includes: |
Human resource management |
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Compensation | ||
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Print publications |
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Youth |
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Peer relationships |
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Salaried |
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Recognition |
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Displays |
Program Implementation |
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Values acquisition |
Staffing |
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Retention | |||
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Overheads |
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Delivery methods |
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Cultural awareness |
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Models |
Policy | ||
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Photography |
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Teaching techniques |
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Leadership development |
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Roles |
Legal considerations | ||
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Graphic arts |
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Teacher behaviours |
Cognitive development of preadolescence, adolescence, and late adolescence |
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Relationships |
Leadership development | |||
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Computers |
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Learning environment |
Includes: |
Recruitment and selection |
Development needs of adult volunteers | ||||
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Telecommunications |
Program redirection |
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Concrete operational |
Training and development |
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Psychological/emotional | |||
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Evaluation |
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Formal operational |
EEC/Affirmative action |
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Physical | ||
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Impact assessment |
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Critical reasoning |
Supervision |
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Social/moral | ||
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Problem finding |
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Motivation |
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Cognitive | ||
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Decision skills |
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Performance appraisal |
Developmental needs of volunteers (see Youth development) | |||
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Vocational/career development |
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Compensation |
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Current issues and problems |
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Recognition |
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Includes: |
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Organizational behaviour |
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Substance abuse |
Control and budgeting |
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Teen pregnancy |
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Management information systems |
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Suicide |
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Resource allocation |
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Family relationships |
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Program reviews and audits |
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Accountability |
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Marketing |
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Promotion of programs |
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Promotion of CES and LGU |
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Public relations |
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Resource development |
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Public section |
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Funding, grants, facilities |
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Private sector |
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Fund-raising, gifts, grants, facilities |
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Recruitment and retention |
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Member |
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Annex II: Draft Revised 4-H Professional Research and Knowledge Taxonomy
