SECTION A. CURRENT FISHERIES SITUATION

1. THE ROLE OF FISHERIES IN THE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

The region extends from the Atlantic coast of Morocco along the Mediterranean coast of North Africa (excluding Malta but including Cyprus) to the coast of the eastern Mediterranean and Turkey, as well as Egypt, Jordan, and countries bordering the Gulfs, and the countries of central Asia.

The fisheries of the region are varied, ranging from those based on the relatively abundant resources off the Atlantic coast of Morocco, often exploited by fleets of large industrial vessels, through to fisheries based on relatively poor resources and often exploited by individuals with low cost vessels and gear, working from the beach or on inland waters. In certain localities the fisheries provide an important source of employment and income, and sometimes when the localities are isolated the community depends wholly on the fisheries sector for their livelihood.

The most populous countries of the region ( Table 1) are Iran (61 m), Turkey (60 m), Egypt (56 m), Morocco and Algeria (both about 27 m), Iraq (20 m), Saudi Arabia (17 m), Syria and Yemen (both about 13.5 m). The countries with substantial fish landings include Morocco (750 000 t), Turkey (604 000 t), Iran (314 000 t), Egypt (305 000 t), Oman (119 000 t), Algeria (135 000 t), Yemen (83 000 t), and Tunisia (87 000 t).

The economies of most of the countries are dominated by agriculture, which contributes up to 25 per cent of Gross Domestic Product. It is only in the mainly oil producing countries that the share of agriculture in GDP drops to about 5 per cent. Population growth exceeds 2 per cent in all countries and attains 4.4 per cent growth in Yemen. A number of countries show negative growth in the economy but others, such as Turkey, show growth rates reaching 4.4 per cent on average per year during the period 1985-93. Per caput GNP is least in the central Asian economies (e.g., US$ 470 in Tajikistan), and is highest in the oil producing countries (exceeding US$ 22 000 in the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait).

No country in the region depends substantially on fish and fish products as a mainstay of the economy. Relative to meat the consumption of fish is low throughout the region. It is only in Morocco that a substantial industry has been built up using marine fish as the main resource for large scale industrial processing and export of fish products; in Iran the freshwater sturgeon provides an important resource for the processing and export of caviar.

2. THE FISHERIES SECTOR - SITUATION AND TRENDS

2.1 Marine resources

The eastern Mediterranean has little potential for increased landings from capture fisheries. The continental shelf of the southern Mediterranean is less productive than the shelf of the northern Mediterranean where a number of rivers pour nutrients into the sea, nevertheless a moderate level of enrichment in oligotrophic waters has been shown in many seas as enhancing production of commercial fish. It seems unlikely that any underexploited stocks have been left in the Mediterranean, although in certain years and seasons there may be a sudden increase in abundance of some small pelagic stocks, often as a result of some temporary environmental condition. Relatively small but rich trawling grounds are found in the Gulf of Gabes in Tunisia, the Gulf of Syrta in Libya and off the Nile Delta in Egypt.

In the region as a whole it is Morocco, with its access to Atlantic fisheries, that has the most abundant fish resources available for direct human consumption, and where the potential for increased investment and benefits to be obtained from the sector, appear most favourable. The cephalopod (octopus, squid and cuttlefish) fishery, exploited by flag vessels of Morocco, Spain and other countries, in the area has an annual yield exceeding 250 000 t with a market value of about US$ 1 billion. The cephalopod fishery is now exploited increasingly by locally registered vessels. Other important and high value demersal resources are the hake, seabream and crustacea. The low value small pelagic resources of sardine, mackerel, horse mackerel and sardinella are found in relative abundance (allowing catches to Morocco flag and foreign flag vessels exceeding one million tons annually) in the southern Morocco waters and are the basis for substantial fisheries; the catch being then canned, frozen in bulk or reduced to fish meal. The small pelagic resources can fluctuate in abundance quite substantially from year to year. Since the cephalopod and demersal fisheries are presently overexploited and in need of effort reduction, long term benefits will only be sustained if the Government of Morocco is able to ensure effective management of the fisheries.

On the basis of several surveys in the seas off Oman, Iran and Pakistan there are reliable estimates of substantial mesopelagic resources which could be exploited, although the economics of the operation is not clear, in particular the acceptability of the product for direct human consumption. Fish resources are not abundant in the Gulfs, although small catches are taken locally by numerous fishermen along the coasts, and provide a source of employment.

Throughout the area the fisheries are threatened with environmental degradation as a result of oil spills, and industrial, urban and agricultural run-off. In recent years seasonal or occasional blooms of jellyfish and algae have been occurring every summer, and in summer 1995 the jellyfish expansion assumed an unprecedented proportion along the whole eastern coast of the Mediterranean. The combjelly (Mnemiopsis sp.) that devastated the Black Sea ecosystem has recently been discovered in the north-eastern Mediterranean. This is alarming news.

The status of the marine fish stocks can be considered from two aspects (i) what the biomass is relative to the "average" biomass when unfished, and (ii) is the stock size such that the level of recruitment may be significantly less than can be supported by the stock's habitat, or is there even a risk of recruitment collapse? To answer the first question knowledge is required about the size of the unfished or virgin stock and the current size of the stock. To determine unfished stock sizes, survey work must be done before the fishery commences, or inferences made based on many assumptions regarding the dynamics of the stocks and their reactions to fishing mortality. To determine the current size of the stocks , surveys (such as random trawl surveys or acoustic surveys) must be undertaken on a regular and statistically rigorous basis. For the countries included in this region, regular survey work is known to be undertaken only in the Islamic Republic of Iran and Morocco; recent exploratory survey work has been done in Libya through an FAO-executed programme.

Another way of obtaining inferences about the state of the stocks is to monitor fishing effort and amounts of catches. As the fishery develops and fishing effort increases landings will increase but once the maximum productivity of the resource is exceeded, increases in fishing effort will result in a decrease in total landings. From an operational management perspective, knowledge of what level of fishing effort will produce the maximum catch is not so important (especially as there are many practical difficulties in determining this) but rather will catches be increased or decreased if there is an increase in fishing effort, i.e. what is the trend?¹ Many of the countries in this regional grouping have not monitored real, or even, nominal fishing effort beyond fishing licenses and those that have usually have done so only for specific fisheries of particular commercial importance.

Because trends in catch-per-unit-effort are not available for the fish stocks in the great majority of countries, inferences are only possible from the trends in catches. It can be reasonably assumed that if catches have decreased, this has not been caused by reductions in fishing effort, but rather "overfishing" of the resource. Even when catches are static, fishing effort probably has been increasing over some time.

Recent catches in Algeria are the highest reported, 1994 landings are 33% above those for 1993, but if sardines, which constitute most of the catch, are excluded, the increase would only be 14%. If small pelagic species are not considered, catches have been stable, but direct inference about the state of the stocks is not possible.

Recent resource surveys in Libyan waters has resulted in some specific information. Acoustics surveys in 1995 indicated biomasses of 56 500 t for small pelagics most of which was in the Tripoli and Gulf areas with around 7% in the Jajbal Akhadar area. They consisted of Trachurus trachurus, Sardinella aurita and Scomber japonicus. Abundance of demersal species was estimated as 27 800 - 39 000 t depending on season. The major species groups were picarel (Centracanthidae), red mullets (Mullidae), rays, groupers, sharks, shrimp, sea breams (Sparidae) and molluscs, primarily squid, octopus and cuttlefish. Sea breams and picarels were the most abundant groups followed by sharks. Annual catches however peaked during the 1987 - 1988 period at around 28 000 t and since have declined to about 20 000 t/yr. Most of this variation has been in landings of sponges which would have non-food uses. If sponges are excluded from these data maximum landings have been in the region of 8 000 t during 1992 of which small pelagics were the most important component (64%). A small, but no doubt valuable, catch over an extended period has been tunas which also would have been harvested in Libyan waters by foreign vessels.

The fisheries of Morocco are diverse and each has its own particular management problems. It is considered that for most part, the resources in Morocco are over-exploited, and different types of vessels are prohibited from fishing at various distances from the coast. Stocks of Sardinella aurita, a resource shared with Mauritania, Senegal and Gambia are however considered to be moderately lightly exploited (MSY is estimated at 750 000 t). Trachurus spp. which is also shared with these countries is considered to be moderately to fully exploited. Potential catch is set at 412 000 t. Octopus stocks are believed to be fully, if not over-exploited. Exploitation of hake stocks, which usually takes deep water shrimp as a bycatch is also over-fished, at least on the juvenile fishes.By far the most important catch has been of Sardina pilchardus, more than half the total in most years (66.0% of the Atlantic catch in 1994). Total Atlantic catches have been relatively stable through the late 1980s and 1990s, at around 500 000 - 600 000 t, though total Atlantic landings leapt in 1994 to 722 000 t. After European pilchard, octopus has been the next most important landed species though landings of this species peaked in 1991. Scomber japonicus and Trachurus spp. are also important in the landings.

Little is documented about the status of resources in the Mediterranean. Peak landings from the Mediterranean were in 1984 (40 100 t) and have since declined to 31 700 t (1994). The major resource was again Sardina pilchardus (49% of the catch in 1994), followed by Trachurus spp. - (10%) of the total catch. The next most common species as Boops boops at only 5.7% of the catch. The major declines have been in the catches of anchovy, Engraulis encrasicolus. Another significant decline has been in sea breams (Sparidae), from 1 429 t in 1980 to 1 131 t in 1994 but up from a low of 719 t in 1982 and 747 t in 1987.

Knowledge about the status of the various stocks is variable and in general knowledge of the effects of fishing effort and the environment on the stocks is not well understood and collection and analysis of information on the fisheries is slow. Morocco has decided to close the fishery for cephalopods to protect reproduction and recruitment during two periods, two months in the autumn and one month in the spring.

The fishery landings in Tunisia since 1980 have been dominated by sponges; in 1994 this group represented 29% by weight of the landings. The rest of the landings consisted of a wide range of species of which Sardina pilchardus was the most dominant single species in the catch - 11.6% of landings in 1994 (or 15.8% of landings if sponges were excluded). Total landings of all groups peaked in 1982 (198 200 t) and were 116 700 t in 1994. If sponges are excluded, landings of Sardinus pilchardus represented 15.8% of the total catch in 1994. Crustacea and cephalopods are valuable components of the catch.

Because of the narrow continental shelves in the Levant Countries and depletion of nutrient in the inflow water from the Atlantic Ocean demersal stocks in this area are not large and pelagic stocks are abundant only in localized areas. The filling of the Aswan Dam resulted in a major reduction on nutrient inflow into the Mediterranean, with a resulting drop in fish production and only recently have nutrient inflows started to increase again with an associated increase in productivity.

Catches have been fairly stable in Cyprus in the last 10 years showing an average annual increase of 2.7% to the peak reported in 1994 of 3 087 t. The major species fished are picarel (Spica smaris) and bogue (Boops boops). Yield-per-recruit and cohort analysis show a generally overfished condition of the stocks. Analysis of other important stocks such as those of sparids and mullidae show that they are in a dangerously overfished condition.

Mediterranean catches of Egypt have recovered from 6 000 t in 1975 to around 24 000 t, almost the level prior to the construction of the Aswan Dam. Recent catches have been stable with average annual increases in catches of 1.1% since 1988. Some species groups have recently shown surprising increases that probably indicate other phenomena than resource changes, e.g., increases in Scombroidae from 453 t to 3 041 t in one year and snappers (Lutjanidae) from 0 t to 1 375 t over two years.

Unblessed with an extremely narrow coastline (1 -10 miles) Syria's offshore area is poor both in extent and productivity. Total landings were estimated at 2 050 t in 1995 though varying values are given depending on the source. The fisheries are considered to be over-exploited with a high level of small juvenile fish in the catch. Pelagic species represent about 61% of the landings by weight. Hake is dominant demersal species caught though Mullidae are more important during certain seasons.

No reliable statistics are available for Lebanon though it is indicated the most of the catch consists of sponges (12 000 t reported out of a total of 14 205 t in 1994). The main landings are of clupeoids, sparids and mullidae. It probably can be assumed that the resources are heavily exploited.

The great majority of the landings by Israel are from the Mediterranean. Landings have shown a more or less continuous decline over the last two decades, a sure sign of over-exploitation of the stocks. Peak landings occurred in 1978 (8 200 t); least landings occurred in 1993 (3 232 t) with a slight increase to 3 770 t in 1994. The most important species in the landings is Sparus aurata, 14.7% of the total catch in 1994 followed by Sardinella spp. (12.8%) and Mullus spp. (9.1%). As with other fisheries in the areas, numerous species occur in the landings. Reported landings from the Gulf of Eilat (Aquaba) have been less than 180 t/yr and were zero prior to 1978.

The Aegean sea countries have a complex bathometry, many small islands, and narrow continental shelves. Nutrient-driven production is weak. Stocks are shared primarily by Turkey (about 30%) and Greece (the remainder).

Turkey has started to undertake stock assessments but as yet no information on the results of the analyses are available. The major concern for Turkey has been the dramatic reduction in landings of anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) from the Black Sea. Total catches reached 604 000 t in 1994. The dominant species in the landings is Engraulis encrasicolus, (55% of total landings in 1994). The next highest landing is for Venus gallina, a bivalve, representing 6% of the catch. Sardina pilchardus follows with 4.9% of total landings in 1994.

Eutrophication has been a major problem in the Black Sea and was probably responsible for the collapse of demersal fisheries on the shelf and deeper areas though it may have increased productivity of pelagic fishes. However, the major impact on the marine ecosystem of this area was the accidental introduction of two jellyfish, Aurelia aurita and Mnemiopsis leidyi. These animals prey on fish eggs and larvae and being without natural predators in this area exploded in numbers. By reducing planktivorus herbivores they will also have contributed to algal explosions and, when these plants died, oxygen deficits.

Various estimates of the total potential landings from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden exist ranging up to 360 000 t for the Red Sea and from 267 000 to 414 000 t for the Gulf of Aden excluding mesopelagic resources in this latter area. The potential yield of mesopelagic resources in the area and in the N.W. Arabian Sea are undoubted large, but how large is a matter of considerable uncertainty.

Typically the Red Sea is fringed by coral reefs, which have an associated perche-type fish community vulnerable to over-fishing. The centre area of the Red Sea is very deep and demersal fisheries are restricted to the periphery; the continental shelf comprises 41% of the total area of the region.

Jordan has a very small coastline on the Gulf of Aqaba. Marine fish landings on a regional scale are minor. Not more than 2 tonnes of marine fish landings have been reported since 1984.

Yemen has two distinct fishing areas: that within the Red Sea and that of the Gulf of Aden. The Red Sea fisheries are dominated, in value, by fisheries for shrimp and perciform fishes; in the Gulf of Aden small pelagics and spiny lobsters form the bulk of the catch value. No recent fisheries resource assessment work has been undertaken in either area.

Total landings have shown a steady increase over the last two decades, but it has not been possible to desegregate available statistics into those for the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Highest landings were reported in 1993 (85 900 t), with a slight decrease in 1994 to 81 900 t. 1994 reported landings represented a 61% increase over those for 1975. The most important species recorded in the catch was Rastrelliger kanagurta. Spiny lobster landings were down to 475 t from a peak of 1 704 t in 1990 and 1 021 t in 1993. This may be the most valuable fishery in the Yemen. Shrimp landings were an all time peak in 1994 (509 t), considerably higher than the year of the last peak (1986) when 432 t were reported landed. Landings were only 89 t in 1992. As with other countries of the region, a large number of species are present in the landings.

All commercially valuable stocks in waters of Persian Gulf countries are fully exploited and many of the larger perciform species that are caught by trap and gill nets can also be expected to be over-exploited, at least from the perspective of growth overfishing. It has been suggested that the effects of the Gulf War, through lowering water temperature, were a major factor in decreasing marine productivity. Landings of shrimp by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain were the lowest ever since the fishery started. The effects of the war may have been augmented by destruction of littoral shrimp nursery habitat by coastal infill.

Bahrain's marine area is small and, with the exception of some of its shrimp stocks, most fish resources that are exploited come from stocks shared to an unknown extent with other Gulf countries of the region. If subjected to reduced fishing effort, the shrimp stocks would probably yield a higher catch.

Fish resources of this country, with the exception of penaeid shrimp are shared with other countries of the region, particularly Qatar, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. The shrimp resources are fully exploited and yields could be increased by delaying the start of the harvest and possibly reducing the level of fishing mortality so as to permit a larger size of the individuals that are harvested. As for other countries of the Gulf, the important breams and groupers are probably harvested at, or beyond the point of maximum yields. Landings are down 17% from their peak in 1989 and mainly in the important and valuable categories such as emperors and shrimp. Increases have been recorded for lower value species such as carangids.

In 1991-92, the Bahraini shrimp stock was reduced to the lowest level since 1982 (probably a consequence of the effects of the Gulf War).

Iran has two main regions of marine fish production - the Gulf of Oman, and the Persian Gulf. In the Persian Gulf, all resources are believed to be in a fully exploited, or over-exploited condition (and subject to active management programmes). Shrimp stocks, a valuable export fishery, are at much lower levels of abundance than in the past and are also the target of an active rehabilitation effort. Stocks of small pelagics, mainly Indian oil sardine, are believed to be lightly exploited and could sustain increased harvests. The most important fisheries in the Gulf of Oman are for tuna and large scombrids, stocks that are shared with the other countries of the region - Pakistan, India, the UAE and particularly Oman. Stocks of Scomberomorus spp. are known to be particularly under pressure. One resource (shared with Oman) that is believed to be particularly large is that of myctophids (Bentosema pterotum) but as yet there is no commercial-scale fishery on this resource. Landings of marine resources since 1986 have varied from 121 771 t to 199 268 t.

Little is currently known about the status of fishery stocks in Iraq. It may be surmised that with the reported draining of the areas around the Chat al Arab, production of fish in this freshwater area will have been decreased. Because of the very limited coastline of Iraq, landings of marine fish from this area would be negligible.

The main point of interest in the Kuwait waters has been the recent recovery of the shrimp stocks. All marine resources are believed to be fully exploited and improved management could lead to higher yields. In 1991, the shrimp catch was just 677 t but recovered to 2 093 t in 1994. A major fishery has developed in recent years for silver pomfret, increasing from a low of 272 t in 1986 to 1 112 t in 1984. This species appears to be susceptible to environmental changes. Sciaenids were the third abundant species, with landings at a peak in 1994 of 1 089 t.

Saudi Arabia has coastlines on the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. While the coastlines are long neither areas are marked by great productivity. Both coasts are important for various perciforms (spiny fishes) and in the Persian Gulf, shrimp. Good markets for fish have resulted in full exploitation of Saudi fish resources. Available data does not permit the desegregation of landings from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.

Catches have shown a steady increase over the last two decades from 23 000 t in 1975 to 54 647 t in 1994. The most important species reported landed is Scomberomorus spp. (13.8% of landings) then lethrinids (13.8%) and Carangids (10.5%). Shrimp are a valuable species; 4 282 t were reported landed in 1994, though the peak landings of this species occurred in 1987 (6 989 t).

Reported landings in Qatar have increased from 1 736 t in 1980 to 7 845 t in 1992 mainly due to an increase in fishing effort by the artisanal sector. Most recent landings are reported by FAO to be 5 087 t in 1994. Not only has the artisanal fleet expanded but so has the fishing effort by individual vessels, particularly the number of traps worked per vessel. The species with the greatest reported landings were the groupers followed by the Haemulidae and then Scomberomorus commerson, carangidae and lethrinidae. Various practices in aggregating species in the catch statistics prevents confident assertions about trends in catch of the different species and thus in the status of the resources.

No explicit information is available about the status of stocks in the United Arab Emirates. However, with a long standing ban on trawling in UAE waters, fish mortality from this cause has been eliminated. Landings statistics for this country show a remarkable consistency that is not shared by neighbouring countries, e.g., Oman. Concern must exist about the reliability of the figures. Although the UAE has a small coast on the Arabian Sea the majority of its catch is landed from the Persian Gulf. The UAE is an important distribution centre for the region as a whole. Reported landings show an almost continuous increase in landings since 1980 reaching 108 000 t in 1994. The most common species in the landings are lethrinids (9.7%), followed by Sardinella spp. (9.4%). As for other fisheries of the Gulf a wide range of species are landed with few dominant species.

Oman is the major fish producer of the area and the only country with net exports of fish. Despite this no explicit information exists about the status of its fish resources. Of major interest is the recent start of a meal fishery using its abundant myctophid resources. Reported landings have been stable ever since approximately 1989 after a significant drop from 1988 (166 000 to 118 000 t). Reported landings in 1994 were 118 600 t. All evidence is that stocks in Oman are fully or over-exploited. The most important species by weight in the landings is Sardinella longiceps (26.4%) followed by Thunnus albacares (11.7%). A highly valuable fishery has been that for spiny lobsters but landings are substantially down from their peak in 1988 of 1 936 t (to 623 t in 1994); there is little chance for a rapid recovery for this fishery because of enforcement problems.

2.2 Aquaculture

The predominant freshwater production systems in the main producing countries are based on the culture of combinations (polyculture) of herbivorous and omnivores fin fish species. The systems are characterised by low to moderate production inputs (extensive and semi extensive productive systems) derived from local sources, with production rates ranging from 500 to 5 000 kg/ha/yr, depending on the level of production inputs and management. In Egypt which accounts for 26% of total production volume within the region, the bulk of common carp production is realised in rice fields with production rates of about 140 kg/ha/yr. Marine finfish are produced mostly in intensive culture systems - in nearshore cages and to a much lesser extent in coastal raceways and lagoons - which are totally reliant on nutritionally complete aquafeeds with high fish meal and fish oil content. Average production from cages is about 10-15 kg/m3/year.

Total aquaculture production within the region in 1994 was 147 559 t with a value of about US$ 875 m, representing a modest 0.6% and 2.2 % of world production by volume and value respectively. Total production was 11% or 14 000 t above 1993. Six countries, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Turkey, Iraq and Uzbekistan, accounted for 89% of production volume and 92 % of production value. Aquaculture contributed 5% of total fish production in the region from capture and culture fisheries in 1994, or 69% of total inland fish production and 5% of total marine fish production. However, these averages mask the high contribution of aquaculture to total fish production in some countries of the region, e.g., 70% in Israel, 50% in Syria and 17.3% in Egypt.

Finfish were the main aquaculture product of the region, accounting for 99% (147 062 t) of total production volume in 1994, with molluscs and crustaceans making up the small balance. Aquatic plants are not cultured in the region. Freshwater fish constituted 79% (115 753 t) of finfish production volume in 1994, marine fish 14% (20 959 t) and diadromous fish 7% (10 350 t). Cyprinids were the dominant group within the freshwater finfish sub-group, accounting for 59% (68 169 t) of freshwater fish volume (or 46% of total finfish volume). The common carp was the dominant species within the finfish group, making up 23% (34 256 t) of production volume, followed by Nile tilapia (19%, 28 584 t) and silver carp (19%, 27 610 t). Of the freshwater finfish, only common carp is widely cultured in the region; silver carp is cultured in six countries but most production derives from two countries (Iran and Uzbekistan); Iran accounts for almost all production of grass carp, while culture of tilapia is reported only from Egypt and Saudi Arabia. The main cultured cyprinids (common carp and Chinese carps) were introduced from Europe and/or East Asia.

Within the marine fish sub-group, the Mediterranean gilthead bream accounted for 37% (7 771 t) of production volume, and Mediterranean sea basses 18% (3 797 t). Bream is cultured in seven countries with Turkey accounting for 78% of production.

Freshwater fish also dominated production value by virtue of their large production volume, accounting for about 71% (US$ 618 m) of total production value within the region; marine fish contributed 187 m or 21% (compared to 14% of volume) due to their higher unit price and diadromous fishes 7% (US$ 10 m). Crustaceans and molluscs contributed a meagre 0.2% (US$ 2 m) due to low production volume. More than 76% of the main cultured species are either omnivores or herbivores. Production of carnivorous marine fish is largely restricted to countries of the Mediterranean basin.

During the period 1984 -94 total production volume and value in the region increased by 174% and 619% respectively. The average compounded annual growth rate was 11% for volume and 22% for value, compared to corresponding global averages of 9% and 12 %. The average compounded annual growth rates (in volume) for the three finfish sub-groups during 1984-94 were 9% (freshwater), 40% (marine) and 19% (diadromous). The freshwater finfish share of total finfish production decreased over the period (from 95% to 79%) largely in favour of marine finfish.

2.3 Inland fisheries

The important inland fisheries of Egypt are based on the river Nile and Lake Nasser, the Delta lakes, and a large network of irrigation canals and impoundments. The waters are considered fully exploited. During the last four decades major changes have occurred in Egypt's inland waters ecosystems. The erection of the Aswan dam created a major freshwater lake, Lake Nasser, which is the largest inland water body in Egypt, and its southern extension extends into Sudan where it is called Lake Nubia. The fishery output is very sensitive to inter-annual changes in water surface area. For example, at a water level of 160 m, surface area is about 2 600 km2 while at 180 m it would be about 5 200 km2. Catches have varied from around 34 000 t in 1981 with relatively high water levels down to about 16 000 t in 1989 just after minimum water levels were reached. Gillnets and trammel nets are the most common gears and tilapias are the most important species. Another major freshwater lake, the 223 km2 Lake Quarun, becomes more and more saline, with a fish fauna that changes from freshwater to euryhaline. Substantial urban and agricultural runoff enriched much of the brackish coastal lagoons where productivity increased during the last few decades. Stocking with marine, euryhaline fish such as grey mullets and sole, and with other semi-management and management practices has enhanced the total inland waters potential of the country. There may be further scope for enhancement of the inland fishery through more stocking and semi-culture and culture methods.

Iraq, Iran and Turkey also have inland capture fishery resources of major importance, and Israel has a well managed fishery in Lake Kinneret with landings of up to 2 000 t per year.

Lake Assad, the Al Assad Reservoir, is the largest inland water body in Syria and provides its most important freshwater fishery. It was created after the completion of the dam across the Furat (Euphrates) River at Al Thawra in 1974. In recent years the water area has increased to some 670 km2. The reservoir is relatively poor in nutrients due to a relatively rapid replacement rate and the fishery, mainly based on gill netting, produces some 2 000 t per year, equivalent to about 35 kg/ha/yr when adjusted for recent water surface areas, in which cyprinids figure importantly.

Iraq's inland fishery is based on the Tigris-Euphrates riverine system, its lakes, and seasonal floods (with a flooded area of 15 000 to 20 000 km2) and it plays an important role in the country's economy. Most probably a potential exists for development of this resource through management, stocking and enhancement of extensive culture practices.

Turkey has 175 000 km of rivers, 1 million ha of natural lakes, 170 000 ha of reservoirs, 70 000 ha of lagoons, 700 small reservoirs used for local irrigation and water supply needs, and an ongoing construction of dams and reservoirs.

The Caspian Sea dominates Iran's inland waters; freshwater landings in Iran have increased from 22 177 t in 1985 to 115 000 t in 1994. Of these, Caspian shad is the dominant species increasing from nothing reported in 1985 to 51 000 t in 1994. Another major increase has occurred in silver carp, from nothing in 1989 to 24 720 t in 1994. Of major concern is the state of sturgeon stocks in the Caspian Sea which have been heavily fished for an extensive period. Stocks are maintained by major hatchery programmes. Stocks of the small pelagic kilka are believed to be lightly exploited and an expansion of the fishery for this species is planed. Other "white fish" stocks are believed to be in moderately healthy condition.

The damming of rivers in Central Asia, and creation of reservoirs, has had a major negative impact on the local fish fauna that required floodplains for their biological cycle. As a result of the large scale irrigation uptake, the original fish fauna of Central Asia has been greatly disturbed. In Uzbekistan there are 3 000 km of rivers, 257 000 ha of lakes and 26 irrigation reservoirs, with a total surface area of 170 600 ha, many of which are the result of damming of rivers; some have been constructed in natural depressions, and supplied with water by canals connecting them with rivers. It is the rainfall and snowfall in the mountains, shared with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, which provides this very dry country with water. A substantial problem has been caused by the gradual desiccation of the Aral Sea which functions as the final destination for migrations of some fish species, and from which other species initiate their upstream migrations; all countries of the Aral Sea basin have been affected, namely Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. In Kazakstan, damming of the Ili River has contributed to fishery problems in Lake Balkhash, the final destination of the Ili. Lake Sarykamysh, shared by Turkmenistan and Karakalpakstan, was established in 1963 in a desert depression by discharged drainage waters from irrigated lands on the left bank of the Amu-Darya River; it continues to grow, and in Central Asia and Kazakstan it is now fourth in size after the Aral Sea, Balkhash, and Issyk-Kul. All inland waters are major receivers of agro-chemicals used in plant protection.

Fisheries in many small water bodies and reservoirs can be enhanced through stocking and management approaches that take into account particular features of the individual fishery. Stocking and other operations, including quasi-culture methods may, where successful, increase catches significantly.

2.4 Fish utilization, distribution and trade

Fish is utilised mainly in the fresh form, in particular in the case of demersal fish, cephalopods and shellfish. Small pelagic fish - sardines, anchovies, etc. - in the Mediterranean is, in addition to being used fresh, also used for canning and are salted. In Yemen and Oman the small pelagic fish are also dried on the beach to be used as animal feed. On the Atlantic coast of Morocco, and also in Iran, this group of fish is used for the production of fish meal and oil. Tuna is mainly used for canning or, in the case of bluefin tuna, exported to Japan. Freshwater species are also mainly used in the fresh form. Caviar, produced from the sturgeon, is a particularly important fish product from the Caspian Sea. Smoking of fish is on a relatively small scale only, e.g., eel smoking in Egypt. The large resources of small (4 cm length) mesopelagic fish in the Arabian Sea are not yet being exploited commercially, but exploratory fishing has been initiated with vessels based in Oman and Iran, and the intention is to use the fish for production of fish meal.

Distribution and marketing have traditionally been the domain of private traders and businesses, although some governments have in the past been active, and others continue to be active in this field as well. From time to time some governments organise campaigns to promote the consumption of small pelagic fish species, sardines in particular.

Morocco is a major exporter of fish (some 50 000 t of fresh fish at US$ 120 m, 90 000 t of cephalopods at US$ 200 m, 55 000 t of mainly canned sardine at US$ 160 m, annually). The value of this export trade is expected to increase substantially in the future as demand for high value fish increases in the nearby European market, and as the national fishing fleet expands so as to catch fish that was previously caught by foreign flag fleets.

Sardines have been canned in Morocco since the First World War. The industry continues to contribute significantly to the Moroccan economy. Some older plants in locations such as Casablanca have closed however as the exploitation of sardine moves further to the south, but new plants, in locations such as Tan Tan, have opened and are of sufficiently large capacity and incorporating the latest technology so that factory gate price allows the product to remain competitive on world markets. Much of the sardine catch also goes for fishmeal reduction, and more of the fish meal is consumed locally as demand from local animal feed suppliers increases. A particularly valuable trade in cephalopod products has been established as Morocco flag vessels which used to land in Las Palmas now land at Agadir. The frozen product can find a ready market in Japan and in Spain. Many traders now specialise in certain species of high value fish to meet demand from Europe.

Egypt exports relatively small quantities of high value fish and crustacea, mainly to South European markets. Libya has also been able to export small quantities of high value fish. Tunisia has traditionally supplied fresh fish as well as frozen fish, cephalopods and crustacea to Italy (annual exports to all countries includes 10 000 t of cephalopods and crustacea valued at US$ 55 m and 1 600 t of fresh fish at US$ 17 m). Recently a trade in sending fresh tuna by air to Japan has developed.

The internationally acclaimed caviar continues to be the main fish product exported from Iran (annually about 250 t valued at US$ 50 m) and this is supplemented by exports of crustacea from Iranian processors in the Gulfs. Oman exports tuna, cephalopods, abalone and high value fish, much of it within the region, and in 1993 it exported 46 000 t which is close to 40% of total landings.

Prior to the environmental changes in the Black Sea, Turkey exported substantial quantities of anchovy; it continues to export high value fish, and Cyprus, Lebanon and Saudi Arabia are amongst its clients.

2.5 Consumption and food/nutrition security

Fish consumption in the Near East and North Africa differs widely between regions, countries and within countries. For instance, fish consumption in Afghanistan is among the lowest in the world at 0.1 kg per person per year while in Aden (Yemen) the annual per caput consumption reaches 40 kg/person/year (the average per caput annual consumption in the world is 13.6 kg in 1994).

Around the Mediterranean, fish is a traditional food item prepared in many ways. Every restaurant carries fish on the menu and many restaurants specialise in preparing seafood. Yet, even in the Mediterranean, small pelagic fish such as sardines has a low acceptability compared to demersal fish such as seabream or large pelagic fish such as swordfish. Among small pelagics, anchovies are usually more readily in demand than sardines. The Mediterranean diet is well known as being healthy, and pasta, olive oil and fish are among the ingredients of this diet. Fish contains certain micronutrients that are absent from or present only in low concentrations in non-fish foods. These micro-nutrients include Omega-3 fatty acids of which the small pelagic species are particularly rich.

From a point of view of food security, fisheries can contribute in a number of ways, and this contribution could be enhanced through promoting the consumption of fish meal made from small pelagic fish, rather than continuing with the marketing of this product solely for animal feed (in Morocco, Yemen, Oman, and Turkey for example). If mesopelagic fish (landed in Oman, Iran, Yemen) could be used in the production of fish meal, then species of other fish could be made more readily available for human consumption. Trawler bycatch could be better utilised rather than being discarded, as is the situation in the Red Sea and the Gulfs.

Egypt's population is expected to reach 70 million in 2000 and, towards 2010, will probably exceed 80 million. To meet the target of 10 kg per caput per year, as established by Government, 800 000 t of food fish would be needed. For this purpose both the national production and the fish imports would have to double, which is probably unrealistic in view of the trends in the world in general and in Egypt itself. It seems reasonable to assume that, at the present growth rate of its population, and with per caput GNP showing modest expansion, to some US$ 2000 in 2010, per caput consumption will at best remain at its present level of 8 - 8.5 kg per year with total consumption not exceeding 550 000 t.

Future fish consumption in Libya will depend less on local supply than on general economic development, and, with increased imports, the per caput consumption may reach 7 - 8 kg per year in 2010. In Tunisia, an expanding economy and tourist sector, where fish consumption will be particularly high, will contribute to increasing demand which may well have to be met by imports, with average per caput consumption reaching 11 - 13 kg per year. Algeria may continue to have a consumption of 6 - 7 kg per caput per year, but Morocco will probably show a high increase in fish consumption, as the economy expands and as the fishing sector in particular expands. It is probable that more small pelagic fish will be channelled towards local consumption so average consumption can be expected to increase above 10 kg per person per year.

Fish consumption in Near Eastern countries is expected to remain relatively modest by world standards, and the present 4.6 - 5 kg per person per year may at best only increase to 7.5 kg per year in 2010. Apart from the more remote coastal and some floodplain areas where subsistence fisheries still exist, fish supply has not been playing, and is not expected to play, any substantial role in the food security of the Near East. Much of the area is arid or semiarid and only a few inland areas provide abundance in water where fisheries can flourish. Israel and the oil producing countries are not influenced to a serious degree by rainfall for their food supply.

The potential growth of fish supply, predominantly from aquaculture and perhaps from mesopelagics, will hardly contribute to the food security of the lower income groups which may suffer from a deficient animal protein intake. This is because of the high price of farmed fish, and because mesopelagics would be utilised, if at all, for reduction rather than for human consumption. The mesopelagics might help however the provision of feed for aquaculture.

Especially in coastal fishing communities low income groups may have in the future less and less access to food fish because of higher prices and improved marketing channels through which fish will be taken from the beach to affluent urban markets. Less fish will be beach dried and others traditionally processed. In certain coastal areas capture fisheries will remain a substantial employer both as a primary industry and through the associated secondary industries and services.

Although Turkey is self-sufficient in food, it is possible that the high population increase may create problems in the future in terms of satisfactory nutrition. Turkey has been undertaking many irrigation projects, as also indeed have a number of other countries in the region. Yemen and Oman are the only countries in the region where fish will continue to play a relatively major role both in the food supply and the national economy.

2.6 International trade of fishery products

In general, the region is not a substantial contributor to the international fish trade; however, as noted above in section 2.4, a number of countries have a small but expanding trade in fresh and frozen fish to Europe, Saudi Arabia, Israel and the Gulfs. Yemen exports dried shark fins and sea cucumber to the Far East. Morocco is well known for its export of canned sardine, as well as frozen cephalopods, and Iran is famous for its caviar.

Trade to Europe may be affected by the entry into force of the EU sanitary control regulations; countries will be in need of assistance to comply with these regulations. The Arab countries in the region are served by INFOSAMAK, which is based in Bahrain and provides market information and advisory services for fishery products. The information often remains under-utilised and countries need to strengthen their capacities to interpret the information in terms of national potentials and limitations and to improve the dissemination of the information provided.

2.7 Technology and infrastructure

There has been a steady increase in cross-border arrangements for the transfer of skills and experience and investment throughout the region. Sometimes, this exchange has been within the region, for example there are Saudi Arabian interests in Moroccan fisheries, and sometimes there has been investment from outside the region; for example, Norwegian interests are involved in trials by Omani companies to develop the mesopelagic resources. Many European businesses have trading agreements with fishing companies, partly to ensure access to supplies. These arrangements have often developed into closer partnerships where one of the partners invests in the upstream or downstream activity, as applicable, with the aim of maximising profits.

Vessels are generally becoming more sophisticated with improved navigational aids, gear, and handling techniques. However, the very large distant water fishing vessels are less often seen than previously, in particular as the East European countries have been restructuring their fleets.

With the exception of Egypt and Israel, aquaculture is not a traditional activity in the region. Technology transfer was the basis of development in other countries. There has been a major transfer of production technology for marine finfish, and molluscs from the northern to the southern Mediterranean countries (mainly to Morocco and Tunisia) and to Turkey (mainly marine finfish production technology). In the case of Iran, methods for polyculture of Chinese carps and mass production of fingerlings was transferred from Hungary; preliminary shrimp hatchery technology from the Philippines and sturgeon hatchery methods from the former USSR. Hatchery technology for grass carp (to control weeds in irrigation canals) was transferred to Egypt from the Netherlands; intensive hatchery methods for mirror carp were transferred from Hungary; and mullet hatchery technology from Hawaii.

Post-harvest technologies and infrastructure are reasonably adequate for local conditions but not for export. The principle of equivalence of the major importer - the European Union - requires that fish imported into the EU is handled and processed in the same way as in the EU itself. While ice is available in most fishing ports it is often used only after landing instead of icing the fish on board. Wooden boxes should be substituted with plastic boxes. Port infrastructure needs modernization in most cases and so do many processing plants.

2.8 Investments in the fishery sector

In countries where aquaculture skills are developing there is an increasing investment in facilities, so as to meet the present and future demand, both for the export and domestic markets.

Morocco expects to modernise its inshore fleet to take advantage of the lower foreign fishing effort in its fishing zone. Port facilities along the whole coast are scheduled for improvement, and a new fishing port is planned at Dakhla. This may well aid development of the onshore processing sector for specific high value fish products, as well as stimulating the installation of canneries for the sardines which will be landed at the port. In a move to improve management of the important cephalopod fishery, government may well discourage further investment and perhaps reduce investment, so that excess fishing capacity is removed. This should lead to higher profits for the companies remaining in the fishery.

In Oman, a Norwegian company has taken an interest in a national company developing the fishery for mesopelagic resources. Throughout the region there is a move to enhance fisheries, particularly inland fisheries, through establishment of hatcheries and rearing of young fish for release in water bodies. This is now well developed in Iran where young sturgeon are released in the Caspian Sea.

3. POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

3.1 Macroeconomics and fisheries sector policies

The fisheries sector in countries of the region generally contributes only modestly to the overall national economy. In certain countries such as Yemen and Morocco, where fisheries are relatively important, the sector is by no means the major sector. In most countries fisheries are subject to the overall policy of rural development, which includes emphasis on the alleviation of poverty and increase in income levels.

Generally, governments in the region have assumed responsibility for the large investments in fisheries infrastructure, and only recently have a number of governments started to encourage private sector investment not only in vessels and processing plants but also in infrastructure.

Morocco in particular has seen substantial investment in infrastructure such as ports and roads to allow landings of fish in the south of the country. The private sector has also come forwards with funds for expansion of the fleets, especially to exploit the cephalopod stocks.

In Egypt, the government is reducing its involvement in the production of carps, and Nile tilapia, and for the collection and distribution of wild fry of mullets. It has recently assumed responsibility for the production of fish feeds using local ingredients. In Iran, the Government has relinquished production of Chinese carp fingerlings to the private sector, but continues to assume responsibility for the production of several species, including sturgeons, for the stocking of the Caspian Sea. The government also operates a number of training centres for fish farmers and extension workers.

3.2 Policies for conservation and management

In view of the growing pressure on stocks some governments have been reducing the availability of grants and low cost loans for investment; for example, Tunisia has withdrawn all support for investment in new vessels designed to fish the overexploited Gulf of Gabes fishery. Most governments, however, do not tax the fuel used in fishing operations, and others actually provide fuel at below the world price. Subsidies in general are widespread but now the trend overall is to reduce the level of public subsidy.

Government provides for research in stock abundance and the results allow decisions to be taken on the level of fishing and catch. In view of the uncertainty of the results, however, governments are often reluctant to take firm decisions on matters relating to management, and it is only in few countries that there is a limit on levels of fishing effort or catch of different species. Moreover, in many countries, there is a lack of means to ensure enforcement of management regulations, and in many instances this has led to a decline in stock abundance and in catches.

A number of countries in the Persian Gulf have banned trawling completely. Throughout the region attention is paid to minimum mesh sizes of nets. There is also a general regulation to permit industrial fishing only outside a coastal zone, so as to protect the activities of inshore artisan fisheries.

Some countries have introduced closed fishing seasons for certain fisheries. In Morocco there is a one, or at times two, month period when the cephalopod fishery is closed with the object of permitting juveniles to grow before being subjected to the possibility of capture. The Government of Morocco also attaches increasing importance to the control of fishing effort and, for the cephalopod fishery, there has been a commitment to reduce the level of foreign fishing effort within the framework of the fishing agreement with the European Union. A short annual closed season is also in force for the trawling operations of Syria.

3.3 Regional fisheries arrangements and organizations

Regional fishery bodies of the FAO cover most fishing areas in this region. Inland fisheries of the central Asia region is however one exception. In spite of the existence of FAO bodies, it has been difficult for governments to find ways to supplement the small budget which the Department of Fisheries of FAO can provide to each body, for expansion in their activity.

The FAO Indian Ocean Fishery Commission has a subsidiary subcommittee for the Gulfs which covers the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulfs and this meets in session about once every two years. There is as yet no regional committee for the Red Sea fishery. The Indian Ocean Tuna Commission has recently been ratified by the necessary number of States. This will be a non-FAO body and operate with finance mainly from distant water fishing nations with fleets operating in the area. Although tuna are found in the area of the Gulfs and Red Sea, the distant water fishing nations take most of their catch elsewhere.

The FAO General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean (GFCM) meets in session generally every two years. The scientific working groups allow exchange of information on the main fish stocks subject to exploitation, and permit conclusions to be made on appropriate management measures to be taken to ensure their sustainability. Some countries of the European Union, and indeed the Commission itself, have provided funds for certain GFCM activities

The FAO Fishery Committee for the Eastern Central Atlantic (CECAF) covers the fisheries of the Atlantic coast, Morocco to Zaire inclusive, and acts as a forum for the exchange of data and information. Apart from a series of working groups that are organised within the framework of its structure, the Committee organises training courses on specialist topics.

Recently, under Morocco's leadership the Ministerial Conference on Fisheries Cooperation among African States bordering the Atlantic Ocean was established. The organization became effective in 1995. The Conference will essentially use CECAF for obtaining scientific advice, and take decisions on a regional basis with regard to management of stocks, in particular those straddling the exclusive economic zone into the high seas and across the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of neighbouring countries.

3.4 National fisheries administration

In most countries of the region the national fisheries administration tends to be small. As the need for efficiency increases some administrations are decreasing, both in number of staff and in funds available to provide support to the sector. In many countries the previously strong lead role of the national administration is being taken over by the private sector in various forms; gear and engine manufacturers provide back-up and much needed support to the fishermen.

Certain countries maintain state-owned fishing operations as well as trading companies, several of which, it seems, operate with a deficit. In view of the many interests involved in such operations, restructuring, downsizing, dissolution or privatization are often difficult to carry out. The general international trend however does point towards such solutions as desirable, in order to reduce public debt and annual budgetary deficits.

In Morocco the Ministère des pêches maritimes et de la marine marchande includes departments for marine fisheries and aquaculture (Direction des pêches maritimes et de l'aquaculture) as well as for international and legal affairs (Direction de la coopération internationale et des affaires juridiques). The Office national des pêches (ONP) was closely involved in development of industrial fisheries, and owned some companies, but now concentrates on providing reduced services to the fishing industry.

In the Islamic Republic of Iran the government fisheries agency maintains a control and management role for the sturgeon resource of the Caspian Sea, and the cash flow from this operation has been used to assist fisheries in other parts of the country as well as to finance buy-back schemes whereby fleets have been reduced.

Countries which were at one time in the Soviet Union have been struggling to adjust to the transitional situation, and fish farms and hatcheries, harbours, fleet and trading companies have been divested to the private sector.

The full economic exploitation of the fishery resources for economic and nutritional goals can in most countries not be guaranteed by the private sector alone and there is need for a catalysing role by government. Quite often the post-harvest sector is not represented in national fishery administrations.

The European Union requires that systems of self control be in place at all steps of the fishery industry and that it be supervised by a competent authority. In several countries the competent authority is either the national bureau of standards or the national veterinary service but in either case it often lacks experience in fisheries and is in need of training, equipment, supplies and appropriate legislation to perform its function as required.

3.5 Fisheries research and training

Morocco has a well established fishery research institute (the Institut national de recherche halieutique - INHR) at Casablanca, which monitors the state of the resources. The scientists undertake stock assessment and provide advice to the Ministry with regard to management decisions which should be taken in regard to resource management. The Institut de technologie des pêches maritimes - ITPM, also at Casablanca, carries out post-harvest inspections to ensure that the quality of products is acceptable on national and export markets. Training is mainly based on Agadir where there is a facility which was well equipped by the Japanese. Japan also provided a training vessel. The fishery training college provides a whole range of courses to met the needs of the fisheries sector throughout the country.

Japan has provided vessels also, in Algeria, to undertake research as well as training. The "Institut technique de la pêche et de l'aquaculture" at Algiers is the main training structure; it also provides assistance to fisheries extension.

Tunisia has a central fisheries research institute which has antennas in different zones both for the collection of data, contact with the industry, and for advice on local management regulations. The particular task of the research is to follow the stocks exploited by industrial vessels in the Gulf of Gabes, as well as the monitoring of the increasing effort exerted by artisanal fishermen in the area.

Libya has recently purchased a modern research vessel, thus strengthening its research structure. Training has also been supported, and the thrusts of research and training are expected to provide a basis for the expansion of the fleet. Nevertheless, the resources are not known to be abundant and any expansion in fleet would have to be accompanied by careful assessment of the impact of exploitation of the resource.

Egypt provides substantial support to inland and marine fisheries at the local level. The main marine research centre is at Alexandria, and here also is found a fishery training centre, attached to the University of Alexandria. A large fish farm facility, the Central Laboratory for Aquaculture Research at Abassa - part of the Central Agricultural Research Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture, equipped for trials with species which could adapt well to the conditions of the region, was set up in the east of the country. Its management has recently passed to the International Centre for Living Aquatic Resource (ICLARM) in Manila.

Kuwait, Oman and Iran have substantial fishery research facilities, and many other countries have small but effective units undertaking stock assessment work. Israel is particularly active in supporting fish farming.

Research and training in post-harvest aspects include the effect of fishing methods on fish quality, the seasonal variations in composition and the particular fat content of the fish, handling and storage on board, processing, packaging, marketing, export, quality assurance and human nutrition. Specific research subjects would include the utilization of mesopelagic fish in the Arabian Sea, the utilization of shrimp bycatch in the Red Sea and the Gulfs, utilization and consumption promotion of small pelagic fish. Post-harvest research on product and market development, including handling, processing, and quality management, is carried out in countries such as Egypt, Iran, Israel, Libya, Morocco and Yemen. But even in those countries where post-harvest research institutes exist the linkage within industry can generally be improved. In most countries the private sector lacks the support of a fisheries research institute or food research institute with a fish technology section.

Training in post-harvest technology is provided in several countries. The training is theoretical and where a post-harvest institute exists also practical. Often trainees need to be instructed aboard vessels. The countries mentioned above provide training of foreign students. In view of the quality regulations in importing countries there is a need for training and institutional support in quality assurance in the fishery industry.

3.6 Economic and technical cooperation

Morocco has a fishery agreement with the European Union which allows EU vessels to fish Moroccan waters, and over the period 1996-99 the European Commission will be transferring ECU 355 m to Morocco as part of this agreement. In addition, the European Commission has pledged ECU 121 m to assist development of the fishing infrastructure, an additional ECU 16 m for scientific research and ECU 8 m for training.

Morocco and Russia will continue a fishing agreement that started in 1992, for the period 1996-98, with a permitted catch of small pelagics of 200 000 t in 1996. The quota will be reviewed after the first year of operation and after consideration of the state of the resources. The products will be sold by a Moroccan-Russian joint venture.

Libya has had an agreement with FAO for technical assistance to the fishery sector through a trust fund agreement. It is probable that cooperation will continue. Tunisia continues to obtain assistance from FAO in the field of aquaculture in particular.

Yemen has been receiving substantial financial and technical assistance from the World Bank as well as the European Development Fund for a number of fishery activities.

SECTION B. ISSUES

1. DISCARDS

Discards in the Mediterranean are not considered a major problem; because of the strong demand for fish and the acceptability of even very small fish by consumers in most Mediterranean countries, almost all fish can be sold. Nevertheless, in some countries the imposition of a minimum size for permission to land certain species of fish encourages the practice of discarding.

In countries which have coastlines on the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman and Persian Gulf, discards arise from two sources: (1) fishes that are unprofitable to process, store and land, and (2) fishes that are unmarketable. In the first case discards primarily arise from shrimp trawlers. These operate in waters of Kuwait, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. Discarded fish are of low commercial value or of such small size that no market demand exists for them. As is common in tropical trawl fisheries for shrimp, bycatch comprises around 80 - 95% of the catch depending on the season and fishing ground. Reported landings of shrimp in the Gulf states mentioned above were 8 091 t in 1994; reported landings in the Red Sea by the Yemen were 617 t. Thus bycatch from this source, of which most would be discarded, was probably no less than 35 000 t in 1994.

Whilst considerable amounts of small fish would also be taken by the Egyptian trawl fleet, both in Egyptian waters and in those of other countries in which they are licensed to fish, e.g., Eritrea, the strong markets for fish in Egypt mean that few small fish are discarded by their fishing vessels operating in the Red Sea. Saudi trawlers discard significant quantities of, in particular, lizard fish and Nemipterus sea bream in the Red Sea. In the Far East these same species are used to make "surimi" type products.

A study of the practice of discards from trawlers targeting cephalopods off Northwest Africa indicates that over fifty per cent of the catch is discarded. In view of the cephalopod catch in the area approximating 250 000 t annually it may well be that over 250 000 t of low value species are discarded in that area of the Atlantic (although about 15 per cent of the discards may be gelatinous tunicates and other inedible organisms), and perhaps a further considerable tonnage (perhaps over 100 000 t) by vessels targeting hake and crustacea.

2. USE OF SMALL PELAGICS

The use of small pelagics varies throughout the region. The fisheries for sardines in Morocco are relatively large and the canning industry is well established. Other small pelagic species such as mackerel have also been successfully marketed. In the southern Mediterranean market demand for small pelagic is strong in a number of countries, such as Egypt.

In other areas, because of consumer preferences and the high fat content, considerable difficulty exists in successfully marketing catches. The current status of the resources is unknown.

Fisheries of the small freshwater clupeids (kilka) in the Caspian Sea are expanding, primarily in Iran. The catch is increasingly used in high value forms, such as frozen whole consumer packs. It is also turned into high-value fish meal for poultry and, progressively, more aquaculture feed in addition to the traditional processing such as that for canning.

Small pelagic resources, because they are predominantly harvested by artisan-scale fishermen, often have a particular social importance in the countries where they exist. The fisheries often land a product (locally well esteemed) which is not processed further prior to sale to consumers. The value of the catch from these fisheries is often greater than that normally associated with small pelagic fisheries. Competition for resources in near-shore waters, by industrial scale fisheries, is an associated management issue that governments are having to face up to.

3. MANAGEMENT OF EXCESS FISHING CAPACITY

In the Persian Gulf the Iranian government has undertaken a fleet reduction programme, after banning trawling in the Gulf, although permitting a limited season shrimp fishery. This involved mainly industrial trawlers, the operations of which are now restricted to waters of the Gulf of Oman. Iran has also undertaken a substantial buy-back scheme in its waters of the Caspian Sea in the face of declining sturgeon catches and the often illegally targeted bycatch of sturgeon by fishermen using gillnets whose intended catch should have been other Caspian bony fishes. Displaced fishermen have either been bought out of the fishery or moved in to fishermen's co-operatives that use other types of fishing gear.

In Turkey the collapse of the anchovy fishery in the Black Sea around 1989-91 displaced surplus vessel to the Turkish Mediterranean acerbating a state of overfishing.

In Morocco the renegotiation of the fishing agreement with the European Union has led to a reduction in number of foreign vessels exploiting the high value demersal resources. The government continues to assess the need for controlling fishing capacity on different stocks, and intends to establish management plans for each fishery, which will guide future policies concerned with this issue.

4. PROBLEMS FACING FISHERY MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATIONS

The problems facing the General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean (GFCM) are regional diversity in species, fisheries and cultures, which makes harmonization of management measures difficult. This has made the GFCM more of a forum for discussion of issues than a management body. For many of the countries of the southern and eastern Mediterranean, shortage of funds to provide infrastructure, attend management meetings, collect data and perform analyses have been reasons for a growing gap between the activities of countries to the north and the south. A sub-regional approach to co-ordination of resource evaluation, with expert consultations of GFCM meeting in the different subregions has been adopted. With respect to tunas and swordfish, the non membership of most southern and eastern Mediterranean countries in the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) is being addressed through a co-operative ICCAT-GFCM working group.

In the Atlantic, the FAO Fishery Committee for the Eastern Central Atlantic provides a forum for nations fishing in the area to exchange information, and provides a framework for organising scientific working groups to assess various fish stocks. Morocco has taken the lead to set up the Ministerial Conference for Fisheries Cooperation between States bordering the Atlantic; the agreement has received the necessary number of signatures to allow ratification. As the demand for fish increases in Europe, a number of southern European nations will have an incentive to increase their fishing activity in waters of Morocco and the northern African coast.

The Indian Ocean Fishery Commission of FAO handles fishery management affairs for countries of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden but in reality there is essentially no regional fisheries management activity in any form. In contrast, the Committee for the Development and Management of the Fisheries Resources of the Gulfs (Persian/Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman) is active. It has biennial meetings and in the last four years has begun a number of technical working groups as a start to addressing regional management issues. Member countries of this Committee vary widely in their technical capability and in the level of fisheries management support activities; while many have well designed and executed fisheries research programmes, for almost all countries, actual fisheries management activities are few and weak. This often reflects, in particular, insufficient resources allocated to management research and also the intractability of many management issues compounded by the mullet-species and mullet-gear nature and shared stock nature of the fishery. Despite this, some countries have implemented politically difficult conservation actions such as banning of trawling (United Arab Emirates) or at least limiting it to tightly controlled fishing seasons (e.g., Iran).

5. RESEARCH RELATED TO CAPTURE FISHERIES

The ability and resources provided to undertake fisheries research varies among the countries of the region. Some countries have well funded and competently managed fisheries research programmes. However, in many countries the progress in developing fisheries management has been minimal and many challenges remain. These include appropriate training of nationals in population dynamics and relevant quantitative methods, execution of accurate and timely collection systems for catch and effort data and statistical analyses both of the information relating to fisheries resources and socio-economic factors, and, most importantly, production of annual fishing plans to ensure that, at least, social benefits from the fisheries are not decreased by excessive fishing effort and over-investment in harvesting and processing capacity.

As in other areas, the main challenge is determination of the status of the resource, and appropriate levels of harvesting and fishing effort. Most countries have yet to consider issues of equity (how many fishermen should be allowed and what should be the nature of property rights in the fishery) in their research programmes and, when they do, the usually difficult social choices will have to be evaluated.

In terms of biological information, sufficient is known about catch-effort relationships (with the exception of the mesopelagic resources in the Northwest Arabian Sea) to permit precautionary management, but as with many other world areas, almost nothing is known about the relationship between stock sizes in the area and recruitment. Qualitatively, much is understood about the factors driving marine productivity in the respective marine areas of the regions of these countries, but inter-annual variability and decade scale changes means, as yet, that this information is difficult to use for real time management of the fisheries resources.

East of Suez, little co-operative marine research, with fisheries management as the goal, is yet being undertaken. This is the consequence of scarcity of national research and management resources and the unavoidable requirements to attend to national management priorities. However, important regional management problems do exist, e.g., for Scomberomorus commersoni in the Gulf of Oman and Northwest Arabian Sea where catches in at least some countries have precipitously declined along with the size of the spawning stock size, and for other shared stocks such as grouper in the Persian Gulf. One future requirement for collaboration will arise if the larger mesopelagic resources in the Gulf of Oman and Northwest Arabian Sea become exploited, in particular because of their transboundary location.

6. AQUACULTURE RESEARCH NEEDS AND ISSUES

Aquaculture research needs vary with development priorities and constraints at the country level, but key research targets in many countries of the region include:

Issues facing the future development of aquaculture in the region are primarily related to competition for fresh water, land resources, and feed ingredients. The supply of water is particularly critical as many countries of the region are in arid or semiarid zones and priority of water (and arable land) use is given to agriculture. The lack of intersectoral development planning, particularly between agriculture and aquaculture, has often blocked multiple use of resources through integrated farming systems. Limited availability of feed ingredients has also limited opportunities for intensification of production, and the cage culture of fish in inland waters to avoid use of arable land. Countries facing these constraints are turning to culture of fish in inland waters to avoid use of arable land, to culture of brackish water and/or marine aquaculture whenever possible, and to the stocking and enhancement of fish production from reservoirs and natural inland waters (culture based fisheries). Privatization of fish farms and restructuring of the fisheries public sector are important issues in countries of the former Soviet Union.

In the case of marine aquaculture, market saturation and the decreasing market price of the Mediterranean sea bream and sea bass are challenging the viability of export-oriented production from countries outside European Union, which import aquafeeds and pay a tariff for their fish to enter Europe. The supply of high protein aquafeeds and the availability of sites in the coastal zone and nearshore coastal waters pose additional limitations.

With regard to aquaculture development, there is a general need to strengthen the capacity of the public sector in development planning and sector management, extension services and the expansion of information to assist development.

C. OUTLOOK

On the assumption that fish consumption in the region remains relatively low by world standards it would seem reasonable to expect that, at least until 2010, the increased demand could be met from higher landings of fish in the region. In North African countries the population is expected to increase to 142 million in 2000 and 168 million in 2010. If per caput consumption remains at 7 kg per caput the annual demand will be 995 000 t in 2000, and 1 179 393 t in 2010. However, the fish food demand could reach 1.5 million t in 2010 if average per caput consumption increases to 9 kg. For the Near East it is possible that demand will increase to be about 1.5 million t in 2000 and exceed 2 million t in 2010, as consumption increases from the present 5 kg to about 7.6 kg in 2010.

Improved management of fisheries should allow increased catches of certain stocks which are exploited intensively at present, and small pelagic resources in particular (including mesopelagic resources) should form a basis for increased landings of fish throughout the region. Some high value fish will inevitably be exported to markets where higher prices are commonly paid, and some low value fish may be reduced to fish meal to meet demand for this commodity from animal feed companies for users such as fish farms, the poultry and livestock industry, and pets. In theory the supply and demand should balance for many years to come, but in practice the demand from Europe may divert some of the fish to the north rather than allow it to move from fishing areas to contribute to the avoidance of food deficits.

The Atlantic waters of Morocco (stretching south to Cap Blanc on the border with Mauritania) have special potential for meeting increased demand for fish. The small pelagic stocks such as horse mackerels are also in demand by West African countries along the Gulf of Guinea to meet their food needs. These horse mackerels, along with sardinellas, were at one time caught by large East European fleets; however, with the change in economic conditions these distant water operations by these fleets declined. These stocks were also at one time caught by Egyptian trawlers.

Other small pelagic stocks off Morocco are the sardine stocks which traditionally have been caught and canned by onshore plants along the coast from Agadir to Casablanca, as well as in the canning plants of the Canary Islands. In recent years the main sardine stocks have moved south and are now found off southern Morocco. Some of this fish is now landed to the new port at Tan Tan where some sardine is canned at the new plants and other sardines are taken by truck to Agadir.

Canned sardines from Morocco and the Canary Islands are sold throughout the world, often to low income groups, and so contribute to relieving problems of food security. About 200 000 t of sardine are now turned into fish meal and a further 200 000 t are canned. The constraint to canning further volumes is generally considered to be the market, which is not expanding quickly, rather than the resource which it is judged could be exploited more intensively.

The planned construction of a fishing port at Dakhla (as well as a good road connecting it the main road system) will not only promote further the sardine canning industry, but also promote installation of fish processing in general and particularly of high value demersal species which could then be moved quickly to the urban markets, not only in Morocco but also in Europe.

The expansion of the cephalopod trawler fleet under the flag of Morocco first led to the landing of this species group in Las Palmas and then since the 1980s in Agadir and Tan Tan. The species are normally frozen at sea and then sent to markets in the Far East and Europe. The Spanish and other foreign fleets have been progressively reduced in size and this trend is expected to continue. It will however be a challenge for the Moroccan authorities to manage this high value fishery, in addition also to managing the inshore trawling fishery to the north where stocks are recognized to be intensively exploited.

As the market for high value fish in Europe expands there is more of a demand for Morocco's fish, and this has led to the creation of numerous small-scale fishing enterprises along the coast to the south, as well as improved investment in on shore processing, handling and distribution facilities. In the case of enterprises dealing with frozen small pelagics it will be important to control the costs of freezing which are a relatively high percentage of the total cost of the product.

Along the north African coast there are a number of lagoon systems that are the basis for rich fisheries. Much of the fish goes to meet local demand (mullet in particular), but much is exported. Managers of these lagoons are continuing practices which have evolved over many years; numerous lagoons and sheltered coastal areas have been adapted for intensive aquaculture. Aquaculture for export of high value fish has recently been affected by a drop in price in the main market of Italy (mainly for sea bass) but this constraint is foreseen to be overcome, and this will lead to a future expansion of aquaculture. In Iran, production of Chinese carps in existing farms, especially in Khuzistan province, can be easily doubled through sustainable semi-intensive production methods and improvements of the genetic quality of seed. Substantially higher production can also be secured from a systematic approach to stocking of reservoirs. In Egypt, average production rates from freshwater ponds can be more than doubled, using viable semi-intensive finfish polyculture methods if adequate water and seed supply can be guaranteed. Adequate seed supplies and improved water quality would help to more than double production from brackishwater coastal ponds.

Survey work carried out at intermittent periods over the last two decades have shown that there are substantial stocks of mesopelagic, or myctophid, species off the coasts of Yemen, Oman, Pakistan and Iran. Because of the uncertainty associated with a future commercial fishery, it is important that pilot activities be undertaken, and indeed this is already understood to be occurring. One problem to be resolved will be the development of cheap methods of harvesting; as modern trawlers are a heavy investment; pair trawling might solve this, by reducing the need for large trawlers, but the recommended fishing technique still has to be assessed.

Research on the chemical composition of the meal made from mesopelagic species needs to be continued, and information should be obtained on seasonal changes in composition of nutrients. There might be a possibility to use the catch for direct human composition, perhaps as dried or deep-fried fish; although it would appear more realistic perhaps to assume that its future may well lie as an ingredient of animal feed. More work must also be undertaken on the storage life of mesopelagics. Additional animal feeding studies are required in aquaculture applications.

A number of countries have now banned trawling in the Persian Gulf, and, in the process, have been arranging for buy back schemes for trawlers. This trawling ban generally improves the environment; other features however, such as oil spills, still need to be monitored to ensure the environment is not negatively affected. In certain areas, such as the Gulf of Suez, trawling for demersal fish continues to be intense and there is a need to introduce management measures. In fact, throughout the region, special attention needs to be given to management of trawling on small as well as larger stocks of demersal fish.

Artisanal fisheries need to be monitored throughout the region as they provide a source of employment for numerous coastal peoples, as well as important food supplies. Small scale fishing is also an important employer in the delta areas and irrigation areas throughout the region, and care needs to be maintained that the fisheries resources are not negatively impacted by poor agricultural and other land and water practices.