The philosophy underlying GTOS is that the land surfaces of the world are of fundamental importance. Terrestrial ecosystems, including - but not limited to - managed ecosystems, can only support people and other living organisms directly (and indirectly) if they are used wisely and efficiently in ways and at rates that allow renewable resources to be replenished rather than to be destroyed - that is in ways that are sustainable. This can only be done well if there is a proper understanding of the natural resources base; the extent of the different constituent ecosystems, how they work, and what affects them and why. Such a scientific understanding requires relevant data but at the moment there is no coordinated system for getting the necessary information.
It would be fruitless to try to monitor everything so GTOS must clearly focus on what users need in the way of terrestrial information. Priorities must then be assigned among data-collection efforts, and to products derived from them, in terms of qualitative as well as quantitative benefits that can actually be delivered. End products must always be in forms relevant to the intended users, thus scientists will tend to need specified accurate and precise data whereas national planners and managers will usually require these same data to be transformed into other forms (indicators, indices, etc.) more readily used by them.
1. Shared experiences
At the national level each industry and service sector has its own different requirements for specialized data products. GTOS will, therefore, have to study a representative sample of user groups to see exactly what they need. By analogy the findings of these studies can then be extended to similar industries, and to other countries with similar environmental and economic conditions. GTOS will, through direct contacts and through its information and public relations activities, make countries within a region appreciate the practical benefits of sharing in the experience of others with similar economic and environmental conditions.
2. National and regional activities
To facilitate national and regional GTOS related programmes GTOS will have to work closely with the relevant national or regional authorities to identify what types of information they need and for what purposes. GTOS will also have to review existing national and regional facilities and capabilities to determine what can be done at present, and what could be done in the future with additional technical assistance. Once this has been completed it will be possible to specify which products will be required, in what forms, and by when. GTOS will then be in a position to work closely with national and regional experts to develop an appropriate production line for each product. These activities should be first undertaken in the form of a few selected case studies with different scenarios. Outside funding could be sought for these case studies.
3. Product business lines
To deliver meaningful, usable products, GTOS will have from the start to adopt ways and means for product delivery similar to those that are current in the commercial world. This will normally involve using for each product a specific production line approach in which consecutive actions are identified between recognition of product need, to product delivery and use. A pathway of this sort will show at what point or junction key actions take place such as quality assurance and quality control procedures, or junctions, for example, where supplementary data are slotted in, or particular analyses take place. Adherence to commercial techniques such as this will ensure that GTOS products are what are required by the users and that they are delivered when needed and in the right forms.
1. GTOS and science
Science is what converts terrestrial data measurements into different forms of information that can be used by different user groups. Thus scientists are an important user group of GTOS data as well as being data suppliers. The needs of scientists must be respected, for without the proper understanding of environmental processes and functions provided by the scientific community the information gathered through GTOS cannot be put to use by national planners or economists with any confidence. Scientific effort and needs will considerably influence the design and operation of GTOS itself and will affect the development of many useful or beneficial GTOS products. Thus, although not the major reason for developing GTOS, scientific design and scientific analyses are crucial in ensuring that GTOS produces data and information that are of value in national economic development.
2. International research programmes
GTOS must have a sound scientific basis if it is to produce meaningful products. GTOS does not have the technical capabilities and financial resources to become a research programme in its own right. Therefore, it is essential that GTOS develops close collaborative links with the scientific community through functional research programmes. GTOS needs to be aware of current research developments and findings in its major programme areas if it is to keep these programmes abreast of present relevant knowledge. Research findings could, for example, sometimes influence or even change observing techniques and sampling strategies. Most importantly, GTOS must work closely with scientists that are developing or improving environmental and ecosystem models that could be used by others. There are many other research programmes with which GTOS could profitably develop links. Attendance should be assured at important research programme meetings, not just to learn of developments, but to make the research community aware of what GTOS does and the opportunities for collaborative work that it offers.
1. Magnitude and impacts of global change
Global change
Global change encompasses far more than just climate change (e.g. global warming). It also includes changes in atmospheric composition such as the increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide and the other radiative trace gases. These greenhouse gases have direct impacts on vegetation and the other biota vegetation supports, as well as the better known indirect effects through climate change.
Global change also includes changes in land-use resulting from economic, technological and social pressures that are the result of changes in human numbers and social conditions. It is increasingly suggested that this human dimension of global change will have a more profound influence on terrestrial ecosystems and their future than will changes in climate or atmospheric composition. Such changes are likely to be largest in the tropics. However, in global change the driving forces are strongly interactive and very interrelated rather than independent which makes understanding more difficult to attain. A widely used example of this complexity is where social and economic pressures lead to clearance of very large areas of tropical humid forests.
Destruction and reduction of the forests alters gaseous input into the atmosphere so modifying atmospheric composition in ways likely to contribute to global warming. This increased warming will allow expansion of intensive agriculture toward higher latitudes which could, in turn, probably cause further emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere (e.g. alter biogeochemical cycles). These types of interactions will result in a changing mosaic of ecosystems across the land surfaces of the world. Thus the key to understanding global change, its rate, its magnitude, and its consequences, is the understanding of the causes as well as effects of human driven changes in land-cover, land-use, and soil conditions and their interactions with rapidly changing atmospheric composition and climate.
Requirements for global change study
Understanding the magnitude of global change and its effects has at least the following two basic requirements. Firstly, numerical simulation models are necessary to sort out the multiple interactions and feedback involved. In order to incorporate processes operating at different temporal and spatial scales the models must be hierarchically scaled from a set of nested observations, measurements and models. Secondly, geographically referenced data will be needed to provide parameters for these models. Thus to meet this need a variety of verified, consistent and accurate data sets must be available covering several levels of spatial and temporal resolution.
GTOS and global change
Global data
Scientists working in the global change field consider that global science is still data-limited so that great efforts will have to be made to develop and validate relevant global data sets. Of the needed data sets those relating to land-cover and land-use are probably the two most important and perhaps the two most difficult to develop. Networks cooperating in GTOS will be able to provide reliable quantitative seasonal and long-term site specific ground data from national ground sites. Such terrestrial data will be of direct value in model calibration and testing, and will also help in better interpretation, verification and calibration of the broad scale data obtained from satellites.
National data
Global change affects every country resulting in changes in land-use patterns and alterations in land-cover. This is particularly so in developing countries and in rural areas of industrialized countries where the bulk of the population is still largely dependent on peasant agriculture and on pastoral livestock production. The economic development of these countries requires that their national policy makers, planners and resource managers have reliable quantitative information about the renewable natural resources of their countries, and about environmental problems that each country may be facing (e.g. drought, coastal erosion, toxic waste disposal). This information is frequently lacking.
The GTOS mechanism can help countries to fill their data and information gaps through provision of appropriate data in forms that can be used by governments, and by advising them on how to set up and operate, or improve, their own national terrestrial observing systems. This should also include advice on obtaining the necessary initial funds for establishing networks and for national staff training. At the national level, therefore, national policy making agencies will receive through GTOS information that will help them to clarify the potential effects of global change on the managed and natural terrestrial ecosystems for which they have responsibility. Activities such as these are likely to be some of the most important and valuable functions of GTOS since they contribute to national economic and social development as well as contributing to attaining better scientific understanding of the magnitude, rate and spatial extent of global change and its impacts.
2. Development and validation of models
Models are mathematical expressions of system function. Because of the complexity of even simple biological or environmental systems, simulation models are usually constructed as a series of block units which can later be interrelated to encompass progressively larger and larger parts of the total system. At each step the model is tested or validated against independent observations on the real system. Global change models are extremely complex and require, at all stages, a wide range of real data for testing and validation. Often many of the desired data are not available. GTOS could be a source of such data, as well as providing field sites for model testing. At an early stage, therefore, GTOS should have discussions with some of the leading scientific modellers in the global change field to determine what role GTOS could play as a source of relevant data from different ecosystems and from different parts of the world. This would mean carefully defining the variables that would have to be collected through GTOS, from where, when, and in what forms.
Background
Early warnings of changes in land surface variables based on data and information generated through GTOS would largely constitute advance announcements of impending or rapidly progressing ecosystem changes, especially where these involve reduction in extent, or adverse change in biological composition, or degradation of productive quality and life-support capacity, including pollutant and contaminant problems. In such cases early warnings might necessitate important changes in current land and resource use, or industrial practice, to mitigate possible adverse effects.
Early warning sensitivities
Although the provision of early warnings is likely to be one of the most politically and economically sensitive issues that GTOS will have to face, it is essential that such early warnings are issued (the need for early warnings was recognized as far back as 1972 at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment). How these warnings are to be drawn up and by whom, and how they are to be issued and to whom are questions that must be faced by GTOS early in its development. Probabilistic early warnings statements have possible global consequences. Because of its importance GTOS should approach this with care and caution and seek advice widely before agreeing to any early warning release mechanism.
4. Scientific understanding
Scientific understanding and process studies
The biosphere is the product of a wide range of interactive ecological and environmental processes that vary in rate according to fluctuations in environmental factors, human activities and degrees of feedback. To limit environmental degradation and its consequences it is necessary to identify the processes concerned and then obtain a sound scientific understanding of the nature, function and effects of each. To simplify this task the overall Earth system can, in effect and with caution, be decoupled and the whole broken into subsystems.
There are two interacting relevant subsystems, the physical-Climate subsystem and the biogeochemical subsystem, linked by the global hydrological cycle and by state variables such as concentrations of the radiative trace gases, surface roughness, and albedo. GTOS is concerned with aiding those trying to obtain better scientific understanding of the processes involved in the biogeochemical subsystem and their effects. Close liaison between GTOS and these scientists is essential. Reports on GTOS activities in this field should reach the science community online and through newsletters to create awareness.
Scientific understanding and process models
Modelling is fundamental to scientific understanding because to model a particular aspect of the biosphere correctly and repeatedly on the basis of its component processes is a real test of whether predictive capabilities understanding of that component has been achieved. Models also provide an indispensable way of organizing current knowledge and identifying critical gaps. Usually, the aim is not to produce ever larger and more complex models, but to produce a family of models of varying complexity and realism to deal with specific questions.
A major science role for GTOS will be to work closely with those investigating and modelling processes concerned with the function of terrestrial ecosystems and ensure that they are aware of the existence of the right sorts of data from the right places and of the right quality and reliability. GTOS will also be able to provide assistance in the testing and verification of terrestrial process models. The GTOS Secretariat should as soon as possible, as an ongoing process, start to build links with these scientists directly and through the GTOS Steering Committee and its other constituent bodies.
Scientific understanding and national development
A sound understanding of the science that underlies ecosystem and environmental processes means that land management data generated through the resultant process models are more reliable and easier to use for national economic development and practical land management. GTOS must ensure, therefore, that scientists work closely with national planners and resource managers to ensure that science findings about ecosystem and environment processes are couched in forms and terms that can be used by national authorities for practical planning and development purposes. Ensuring this cooperation must be an on-going task of the GTOS Secretariat.
5. Planning for sustainable development
Sustainable development
Sustainable development is generally said to be development which meets the demands of today without destroying the possibilities for future generations to satisfy their needs. In other words, a renewable natural resource should only be exploited at a rate that it can sustain without it degrading in the long-term. At a sustainable rate of exploitation the renewable resource is able to regenerate at a rate at least equal to the rate of its removal by exploitation. As with natural balanced ecosystems, in sustainable development, user pressures are balanced by productive responses of the resource system. Thus the resource will continue to exist into the future and will still be there to go on supporting generations to come.
Relevant national information
To achieve sustainable development is, however, far from easy. To attain it countries must first have a sound knowledge of the extent and nature of all their environmental natural resources, not just those that are renewable. Each country must then consider these resources in terms of its national economic and social goals, and the aspirations of its people. Each country has its own air, water, soils, biota and underlying geology which together form the national environment which is available to support its people. To do this wisely requires knowing the extent, condition, function and rate of change of each element of the national environment. Countries often do not have this information. National planners cannot develop wise policies for sustainable development without reliable information and data about their national resources upon which to base them.
GTOS and sustainable development
Data obtained through the GTOS networks will play a major role in helping countries move towards sustainable development. This can be done in at least three main ways.
Direct supply of data and information
GTOS must supply directly relevant data and information to countries in forms that can be used readily by national planners and managers. This will require GTOS data to be transformed into secondary or tertiary data such as environmental indicators or economic indices. Scientists, social scientists and economists will have to work together to ensure that what comes out of GTOS provides what is needed by national economic planners.
Advice on national observing systems
Advise individual governments on how to design and establish, or improve existing, national terrestrial observing systems that would enable the government to obtain the sorts of national resource and environmental data that it needs for national planning purposes. These could be joint activities with either or both of GCOS and GOOS. This advice should be provided through national projects funded by donors. Some of these short-term (months) advisory projects should be developed into longer-term (years) donor funded case studies to demonstrate the usefulness of using GTOS type data in planning for sustainable development.
Better scientific understanding
GTOS data will help in obtaining a better scientific understanding of basic environmental and ecological functions. This improved knowledge, when applied to national data, will make those data more meaningful and reliable so making them more useful in planning for sustainable development.
GTOS data and information users fall into three main categories:
1. Policy makers and planners
Mainly from national governments but also from some international programmes. They need from GTOS national environmental and ecological information on factors affecting the health, well being, and social economic development of the peoples in their country. National renewable natural resources have very great national economic value so that they need to be managed efficiently and in sustainable ways. Policy makers and planners are, therefore, interested in significant changes that are occurring, or are likely to occur, in the extent, health and quality of national renewable natural resources of economic significance, including rates of change. There is also growing demand for improved data information as well as indicators to monitor progress in implementing international environmental agreements at the national, regional and global level. They need data and information in a processed form that can be used in national planning and for policy formulation.
Consequently, national policy makers and planners need to work closely with scientists in the early planning stages of GTOS activities to ensure that data relevant to their requirements are collected or generated. GTOS data are vital for efficient national planning and wise economic development.
2. Technicians and managers
Mainly from national and international agencies and organizations associated with the operation and management of technical development and application programmes. They use data and information generated through GTOS for more efficient operation of their programmes. They also advise GTOS on their new and continuing data and information needs.
3. Research scientists
Mainly environmental and Earth system scientists associated with existing national and international scientific research programmes. The chief interest of most scientists using GTOS data is in improving scientific understanding of environmental and ecological processes and how they affect the biosphere and its component parts. This involves direct field and laboratory investigations as well as indirect studies using simulation models. Scientists, therefore, will also have inputs to GTOS, particularly in the early stages of any activities, by providing advice and firm guidance on the variables to be observed, the measurement units, the techniques to be used, and on appropriate methods of data analysis and data management.
4. Educators
The long term success of GTOS will depend on educating our students to carry on the principles of sustainable development. They will need the data of GTOS and should be introduced to this program and its goals early in their education. GTOS data, analyses and programs should be made available to teachers and necessary training provided through additional efforts. Teachers will provide important information to GTOS on the appropriate presentation of information to enhance understanding of environmental and ecological processes.
1. Rationale
GTOS must undertake extensive consultations with potential associates and user groups that are already involved in global data management or which operate sectoral systems or networks relevant to GTOS, in order to ascertain what these potential users would like to see GTOS do, and what they themselves might contribute to GTOS. Where possible the priorities for their qualitative and quantitative needs from GTOS should be established. It is essential that these consultations be held as soon as practical as input from them is essential to the proper direction and development of GTOS. Although these consultations are an important initial activity of GTOS, the consultative process is an on-going one that will continue throughout the life of GTOS. The consultations should be organized by the GTOS Secretariat and carried out by Secretariat staff, Co-sponsor staff, or consultants, as appropriate. Available financial resources permitting, it would be cost effective to recruit a GTOS Secretariat staff member for 2-3 years whose main duty would be to carry out, or organize, user needs assessments. The first round of these assessments should be completed by the end of 1999, or soon after.
2. International agencies, organizations and programmes
Of the many potential international associates of GTOS and users of data from it there are seven user groups to which priority attention should be given. The GTOS Secretariat should develop close contact with each of them and keep the GTOS Steering Committee informed of developments by, and with, each.
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP)
This ICSU activity is a research programme to describe and understand the interactive physical, chemical and biological processes that regulate the total Earth system, the unique environment that it provides for life, the changes that are occurring in this system, and the manner in which they are influenced by human actions. IGBP has 11 Core Project activities of which the most relevant to GTOS are the Global Change System for Analysis, Research and Training (START), Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ), Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle (BAHC), Global Analysis and Modelling (GAIM), IGBP Data and Information Systems (IGBP-DIS), Land-use/Land-cover change (LUCC), and, most importantly, Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystems (GCTE).
IGBP has from the beginning contributed to the philosophical development of GTOS and should be its main scientific research partner. As such it could play a significant role in developing GTOS scientific specifications, and contribute to calibration, validation and other aspects of quality control. IGBP could be of particular help in defining core measurements and field sites (natural and managed) and in the development of algorithms for use with remote sensing satellites. More direct contact is now needed with the relevant programmes and core projects of IGBP to ascertain how data and information from GTOS activities could contribute substantively to those programmes. It should also be determined how these programmes could contribute to GTOS activities thus developing interactive mutually beneficial partnerships. The GTOS Secretariat should develop close contact with the IGBP Secretariat and those of the relevant IGBP core programmes. The GTOS Steering Committee should be kept informed about IGBP activities.
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)
This is a potentially very important user group for GTOS data and information. Sponsored by the World Bank, FAO, UNEP and others, the CGIAR mandate is to undertake research to increase agricultural production, to combat poverty, and to protect the environment. Thus the 26 CGIAR organizations are concerned with agriculture, forestry, livestock, land-use and other related activities and so with the sustainable development of developing countries. It now has 16 major centres throughout the world, most associated with a number of research sites and study areas of up to 200,000 ha each. In the last decade the CGIAR organizations have become increasingly concerned with how representative are their study areas, and with the problems of extrapolation of the findings from their sites and study areas to other parts. They have thus developed considerable Geographic Information System capabilities in several of organizations which are starting to act as lead GIS agencies for the whole system.
CGIAR also holds a large number of sophisticated databases such as that on climate held by the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) in Cali, Colombia. The aims and interests of the CGIAR Organizations are directly relevant to those of GTOS. Direct contact is now needed between GTOS management (GTOS Steering Committee and GTOS Secretariat) and the most relevant CGIAR organizations to find out what they would like from GTOS and what they might contribute to it. Initial contacts should be with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baños, Philippines; Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, Colombia; International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya; International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR), The Hague, Netherlands; International Center for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya; Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia.
International Council for Science (ICSU)
Created in 1931, ICSU is a non-governmental organization that promotes international scientific activity in all branches of science and the application of science for the benefit of humanity. ICSU has two categories of membership: national Academies of Science or national Scientific Unions (currently 95); and international Scientific Unions (currently 25). In fulfillment of its mandate ICSU initiates, designs and co-ordinates major international, interdisciplinary research programmes which have included the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958), the International Biological Programme (1964-1974), and more recently the ongoing International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme: A Study of Global Change (IGBP), which compliments the joint WMO/ICSU World Climate Research Programme.
ICSU also creates interdisciplinary bodies which undertake activities and research programmes of interest to several member bodies. These include activities in the Antarctic, oceans, space, and water research, problems of the environment, genetic experimentation, solar-terrestrial physics, and biotechnology. ICSU also serves as a focus for the exchange of ideas, the communication of scientific information and the development of scientific standards. It, therefore, organizes more than 600 scientific conferences, congresses and symposia each year. ICSU also assists in the creation of international and regional networks of scientists with similar interests.
Because ICSU is in contact through its membership with several hundred thousand scientists from all parts of the world, ICSU is increasingly called upon to act as spokesperson for the world scientific community on all science related subjects, including the environment. ICSU is, therefore, a Co-sponsor of all three Global Observing Systems (GCOS, GOOS, GTOS). It is the membership of ICSU that will provide many users of GTOS data. These will range from individual scientists (both research and applied), national academies and the international scientific unions. Most scientists involved in GTOS will be associated already with ICSU in one way or another.
The main ICSU programmes will prove the principal scientific users of data obtained through GTOS, notably IGBP, the World Climate Research Programme, and the International Human Dimensions of Global Change Programme (IHDP). Several of the ICSU Special Committees will have interest in the work and findings of GTOS. These include the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), the Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA), the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), the Committee on Food Security (CSFS), the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), the Scientific Committee on Water Research (SCOWAR), the International Programme of Biodiversity Science (DIVERSITAS), and the Panel on World Data Centres (WDC) which covers geophysical, solar and environmental data.
GTOS should develop good contacts with these groups though staff, fund, and time limitations will prevent GTOS being represented at more than a few of their meetings. It is important that those involved in GTOS are aware of the work of each of these groups so that they can be brought into GTOS activities when appropriate. Since data obtained through GTOS can support many ICSU activities and vice versa, liaison development between GTOS and the ICSU groups should be an ongoing priority task for the GTOS Secretariat.
Secretariats of environment related international conventions
International conventions are an important means for regulating the use of the environmental and natural resources. Consulting the secretariats of these conventions will provide insights into the types of data and information that States Parties to the conventions require in order to meet their convention obligations. Some of this contact work has already been done for GTOS but several relevant conventions have not yet been consulted, notably those concerned with coastal areas, and some of the larger regional conventions. Convention Parties are potentially an important user group for GTOS data and information. Contact with the Convention Secretariats is also a possible means of getting States Parties to the conventions to participate in GTOS.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Originally convened in 1988, IPCC has a mandate to review the current scientific literature and data on climate change, summarize the findings, and present policy options. It has done this through a series of three major assessment reports, drawing upon the knowledge and experience of more than 2,000 climate scientists world-wide. The conclusion of the most recent IPCC assessment is that "the balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate." This wording suggests that the evidence for such an influence is far from satisfactory. The development and behaviour of global climate models confirms this view. While these models are unquestionably the most effective tool available for predicting future climate changes due to human activities, at present they are not able to look back and show past climates as they actually were. Climate scientists will, therefore, need additional reliable data from all over the world, especially terrestrial data, in order to improve their climate models. GTOS could play an important part in enabling these terrestrial data to be obtained.
State of the World reporting
Several organizations prepare annual or biennial reports on the state of the world or the state of some segment of it (regional or sectoral). These organizations include the World Resources Institute (WRI), the Worldwatch Institute, and UNEP, formerly with its Environmental Data Report, and now through its new Global Environment Outlook (GEO). There are also sectoral reports produced by FAO, the World Bank and IUCN. The perceptions of the compilers of these broad overviews might help to identify important environmental questions and gaps in knowledge and understanding, especially relating to sustainable development, that might otherwise be missed and with which GTOS could assist.
International programmes
There are many ongoing international programmes in environment and resource related fields that would materially benefit from an association with GTOS. Additional reliable data from geographical areas not included in their present systems would enhance the value of these networks and the information they provide to users. Association of these international programmes through GTOS would create a partnership of data providers and data users that would together better meet the needs of national governments and the global change research community. The World Health Organization (WHO), for example, is responsible for international global monitoring networks on urban air quality, freshwater quality, mycotoxins, and malaria, onchocerciasis and other vector borne diseases. In addition WHO is becoming increasingly concerned with the epidemiology of other global or widespread human diseases. All of these WHO international programmes would benefit from additional terrestrial data against which to set their own data.
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) has become in the last decade the leading international programme for obtaining, holding and analyzing global biological diversity, terrestrial ecosystem, and conservation data. The Smithsonian Center for Tropical Forest Studies has an unparalleled global network of long-term high intensity tropical forest observation sites. The UNEP Global Resources Information Database (GRID), especially its Norwegian Centre at Arendal, is now a major repository of georeferenced global, regional and national environment related and ecological data. All these and many more would benefit from additional data generated through the GTOS networks. GTOS Secretariat should identify relevant international programmes and open discussions with those responsible for each, as time permits, with a view to their participation in GTOS as a future user of the system.
3. National governments and national programmes
Developing countries
Major users of GTOS data and information will be national governments, especially those of developing countries, where data and information products produced through GTOS are expected to assist in helping countries towards attaining sustainable development. Products available through GTOS will have practical implications for governments on the development, management and wise utilization of most national renewable natural resources and will thus benefit the production, marketing and distribution of food and other economic crops and in improving land-use. They will also help governments to understand better the possible future consequences for them of global change and related climate phenomena such as the El Niño.
Industrial countries
Many industrialized countries already have well established functional national terrestrial observing and assessment programmes whose aims and objectives are very similar to those of GTOS. Examples are the Chinese Ecosystem Research Network (CERN) of the People's Republic of China, the Long-Term Ecological Research Network (LTER) of the United States and the Environmental Change Network (ECN) of the United Kingdom. Unlike most states in the developing world, the observing networks of industrialized countries are mainly concerned with gathering reliable data that help to obtain improved scientific understanding of basic environmental and ecological processes. Better scientific understanding allows the development and testing of more realistic predictive models. Existing national networks would thus benefit from the acquisition of high quality data from observing sites in other areas and regions since this would lead to further improvements in the predictive models. Practical application of these improved models will result in better resource and environmental management. Existing national networks are, therefore, very good candidates for grouping together into a prototype GTOS since each network would benefit by being able to access data and information from the others. Participation in GTOS would thus benefit them all with consequent improved models leading to better economical development and wiser use of land and national resources in all countries - developing and developed.
Consultations
Financial, staff and time constraints will not allow meaningful discussions by the GTOS Secretariat to be held directly with all governments. It is essential, however, that at an early stage GTOS begin discussions with a range of governments from the different geographical regions to ascertain their views on GTOS, what sort of products they could use from GTOS, and what national activities of theirs could contribute to GTOS. Particular attention should be paid to how data from GTOS should be made available to individual governments and in what forms. The attitudes of governments to the issuance of early warnings by GTOS should also be determined, especially possible mechanisms to be used. A useful way of opening these discussions would be for GTOS to convene a consultative meeting with a representative group of governments. An indication of how governments currently perceive their needs for environmental data can be obtained by talks with the Secretariats of some of the environmentally related Conventions to see how these Secretariats consider that States Parties to the Conventions view their international monitoring and assessment obligations under the terms of the Conventions.
4. Private sector customers
Rationale
Modern transport and communication systems are rapidly breaking down national barriers and a new common global culture has arisen, is spreading, and will have a dominant influence on the world's long-term future. The rise of this common culture was inevitable once post World War II global economics brought about the development of multinational, market driven, commercial organizations. These new economic colossi transcend national boundaries and many now have more world-wide political and economic influence than most of the world's national governments. Today multinational company staff consider themselves as belonging to a particular company rather than coming from a particular country. There is a growing awareness that environment and development really are linked - in all countries. People are increasingly recognizing that life without industry is very difficult in the modern world; at the same time industrialists are becoming aware that environmental care by them may have long-term cash benefits, as well as being good for customer relations, and the health of the people upon which most of their industries depend. It is essential, therefore, that GTOS develops close links with the private sector world wide.
Approach
The term "private sector" covers a very diverse range of potential users of GTOS data and information. One uniting factor is that all private sector operators are functional in order to make money for themselves. Consequently, as part of their money making operations, they all buy and sell data, information, products and services. Thus for GTOS to become associated with the private sector it must have a clear policy on data and information release which has been approved by all the GTOS Co-sponsors. This policy must recognize national sovereignty over national data and the implications of this for various data series obtained through GTOS activities. The commercial value and implications of data gathered through or for GTOS must also be recognized. GTOS will not be able to communicate with all elements of the private sector, thus it should initially concentrate on the large multinationals that impinge on or affect the environment. These include those concerned with fossil fuels, power generation, chemicals, water, transport (including space systems), construction, nuclear energy, telecommunications and insurance. The first contacts can best be made on an industry by industry basis through fora and mechanisms already established by others, such as the UNEP Industry and Environment Office in Paris. Later direct contacts with individual multinationals can be established. The possibility of having staff seconded from individual companies to the GTOS Secretariat for topic specific short-term assignments should also be explored.
