GENERAL BACKGROUND DATA
Area of the country | 1993 |
390 760 |
km2 |
Cultivated land | 1993 |
321 700 |
km2 |
|
1993 |
33.4 |
percent |
|
1993 |
1.3 |
percent |
|
1993 |
10.2 |
percent |
|
1993 |
4.3 |
percent |
|
1993 |
50.8 |
percent |
Total population | 1992 |
11 002 000 |
inh |
Population density | 1992 |
28 |
inh/km2 |
Rural population | 1992 |
70 |
percent |
Fishery production, artisanal | 1996 |
21 000 |
t |
Fish. production, rivers/small reservoirs | 1996 |
6 000 |
t |
Aquaculture production, fish | 1995 |
150 |
t |
Full or partial control irrigation, eqpd. | 1993 |
120 900 |
ha |
|
1993 |
18 |
percent |
|
1993 |
75 |
percent |
|
1991 |
7 |
percent |
Wetland/informal irrigation | 1993 |
20 000 |
ha |
Total water managed area | 1993 |
140 900 |
ha |
Irrigation potential | 1993 |
331 000 |
ha |
Full or partial control irrigation, eqpd. | |||
|
1993 |
98 000 |
ha |
|
1993 |
13 500 |
ha |
(small-scale commercial) |
1993 |
3 400 |
ha |
(communal/ resettlement) |
1993 |
6 000 |
ha |
3. INSTITUTIONS OF INTEREST INVOLVED IN RESEARCH
4. INSTITUTIONS AND PROJECTS OF INTEREST INVOLVED IN DEVELOPMENT
4.1 Aquatic Resources Management for Local Communities Programme
4.2 Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services
AGRITEX | Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services (MLA) |
ALCOM | Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme (FAO) |
ARDA | Agricultural and Rural Development Authority |
ASIP | Agricultural Sector Investment Project (World Bank) |
BADC | Belgian Agency for Development Cooperation |
DANIDA | Danish International Development Agency |
DNPWM | Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management (MMET) |
DRSS | Department of Research and Specialist Services (MLA) |
EU | European Union |
FANR | Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Sector (SADC Regional Food Security Programme) |
FARMESA | Farm-level Applied Research Methods for East and Southern Africa |
GOZ | Government of Zimbabwe |
MLA | Ministry of Lands and Agriculture |
MMET | Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tourism |
NAP/ITTA | National Action Programme on Irrigation Technology, Transfer and Adoption |
NAP/WASAD | National Action Programme on Water and Sustainable Agricultural Development |
NGO | Non-governmental Organization |
SADC | Southern African Development Community |
SAFR | Southern and Eastern Africa Sub-regional FAO Office |
SIDA | Swedish International Development Authority |
SPFS | Special Programme for Food Security (GOZ/FAO) |
SWB | Small Water Body |
UNDP | United Nations Development Programme |
|
||
Ssentongo, G. | Regional Fisheries Officer | |
Savva, A. | Regional Irrigation Officer | |
Bitanihirwe, T.Y.F. | Investment Officer/SPFS Programming | |
|
||
Dickson, J. | Programme Leader | |
|
||
Moehl, J. | Programme Leader | |
Verheust, L. | Small Reservoir Fishery Specialist | |
van der Mheen, H. | Aquaculture/Extension Consultant (ALCOM/SAFR) | |
|
||
Murata, M. (Ms) | Principal Agronomist, Oilseeds Research Programme | |
|
||
De Keyser, S.T.C.M. | Agronomist, Regional Cooperation Section SADC | |
|
||
Moyo, N.A.G. | Lecturer/Researcher | |
|
||
Chitsiko, R.J. | Deputy Director and Chief, Irrigation Development Branch | |
Nobbs, C.A. | Chief, Animal Production Branch | |
Benali, W. | Integrated Livestock/Aquaculture Specialists | |
Chimowa, M. | Fisheries Specialist | |
|
||
Machena, C. | Assistant Director Research | |
Gurure, R. | Senior Ecologist/Head, Henderson Fish Culture Research Station | |
|
||
Buckland, R.W. | Technical Adviser/Regional Food Security Programme |
From the administrative point of view, Zimbabwe is made of eight Provinces (Figure1). Each Province is itself divided into six or more Districts.
2.1.2 Physiographic regionsThere are four physiographic regions determined primarily on the basis of altitude:
There are three main river basins: Zambezi (in northwest and north); Limpopo (in south), and Save (in east and southeast) (Figure 1).
2.1.3 Agro-ecological regionsAgricultural development is basically related to the subdivision of the country into five agro-ecological regions (I to V) primarily defined according to rainfall characteristics (Figure2) as shown in the table below:
Agro-ecological regions (AER) in Zimbabwe
AER |
Percent total area |
Average annual rainfall |
Rainfall characteristics |
I |
1.56 |
>1 000 mm |
Well distributed throughout year |
II |
18.68 |
700-1 000 mm |
Confined to summer |
III |
17.43 |
650-800 mm |
Infrequent/heavy; seasonal drought |
IV |
33.03 |
450-600 mm |
Erratic: frequent seasonal drought |
V |
22.20 |
<450 mm |
Very erratic: drought prone |
3.10 |
Unsuitable for any form of agricultural use |
Agricultural development greatly varies from one region to the other as follows:
|
forestry, fruit, intensive livestock; smallholders <20 percent; |
|
intensive farming, some cash crops and livestock; irrigation for winter wheat; smallholders 21 percent; |
|
semi-intensive farming, extensive beef ranching; smallholders 39 percent; important role of irrigation (periodic seasonal droughts, prolonged mid-season droughts, rain starting date unreliable); |
|
communal lands too dry for successful crop production without irrigation; millet/sorghum and some cash crops; smallholders respectively 50 and 46 percent. |
Agriculture is a dominant sector of the Zimbabwe economy. Being heavily dependent on rainfall, years of drought result in increased food shortages, hunger and malnutrition, an adverse balance of payment and inflation (as exports decrease) as well as a reduction in economic growth.
This impact of drought on agricultural production and the national economy in general has been recognized by the government, particularly after a series of five dry years during the period 1981-92. The importance of irrigation to achieve sustainable agricultural development has been clearly underlined (FAO, 1993). As a result, the Second National Development Plan (1991-95) focused its attention to irrigation development in particular in communal and resettlement areas (Section 2.3).
Concurrently, the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme was launched in 1991 with the assistance from IMF/World Bank.
There are two major agricultural sub-groups, according to individual farm size, location, production objectives and support institutions: small scale and large scale farming groups (Bitanihirwe, 1977) as shown in the table below:
Small scale |
Large scale |
|
Farmers | 1 300 000 |
4 500 |
Area, million ha | 21 |
11.2 |
Location | drier, lower agricultural economic zones | high agricultural and economic potential zones |
Land tenure | no security | ownership |
The relative importance of the small-scale group has steadily increased over the last ten years, their key crop production (maize, cotton) having now overtaken that of the large-scale group.
The small-scale group being itself made up of four different types of farms, one generally recognizes five agricultural sub-sectors in Zimbabwe (Bitanihirwe, 1997):
Their characteristics are summarized in the next table:
Characteristics of the agricultural sub-sectors (data for 1993-94)
Agric. sub-sector |
No. farms |
Area (million ha) |
Irrigated area (ha) |
Avg. farm size (ha) |
Farm arable land (ha) |
Located mostly in AE regions |
(1) |
4 500 |
11.2 |
126 000 |
2 223 |
var. |
II > III/IV/V |
(2) |
55 |
0.4 |
13 500 |
7 644 |
var. |
V > III |
(3) |
600 000 |
3.3 |
- |
58 |
3-5 |
III > IV > V > II |
(4) |
10 000 |
1.2 |
3 600 |
162 |
10-40 |
IV > III > II |
(5) |
1 000 000 |
16.3 |
7 200 |
18 |
3-5 |
IV > V > III |
Institutional responsibility for the agricultural sector rests with the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture (MLA). This Ministry has been strengthened during the past years through the World Bank "Agricultural Sector Management Project" (ASMP) which is now under appraisal. One of its objectives has been to formulate the "Agricultural Sector Investment Programme" (ASIP) to been implemented soon.
Agricultural research (Section 3.2) and agricultural extension services (Section 4.2) are both part of this Ministry.
The Zimbabwe remarkable development of irrigation in both the large- and small-scale sectors has been brought about by climatic constraints, including periodic mid-season drought and recurrent seasonal droughts, which make dryland cultivation a risky venture even in AE Regions II and III (Bitanihirwe, 1997). Irrigation is considered essential for wheat and sugarcane. It is preferred for coffee, tea and cotton. Recently, it has also been used for high value crops, such as tobacco and horticulture.
2.3.1 Current status of irrigation development and potentialCurrently, the five agricultural sub-sectors defined above (Section 2.2) are involved in formal irrigation as shown in the following table (FAO, 1993; Bitanihirwe, 1997).
Current formal irrigation developments in Zimbabwe
Agricultural sub-sector |
Area developed (ha) |
1. Large-scale commercial | 98 000 |
2. Parastatal | 13 500 |
3. Settler (outgrowers) | 3 421 |
4. Small-scale commercial | (insignificant) |
5. Communal smallholder | 6 000 |
Total | 120 900 |
In addition, informal/traditional irrigation is practised in an estimated 20000ha of wetlands/inland valley bottoms (dambos) and small gardens by many rural families. Vegetables are produced during the wet and dry seasons. Usually, irrigation is done with buckets/cans from handdug shallow wells. It is planned to introduce water lifting devices, within the SPFS Programme (Section 4.3).
The potential area which could still be developed according to available potential water resources under formal irrigation (full or partial water control) is estimated to be 240000ha, of which 90000ha for smallholder irrigation (GOZ, 1997). Water availability is considered to be the limiting factor for future irrigation developments. Available surface water will have to be stored in large, medium and small reservoirs to regulate surface flows.
2.3.2 Irrigation methodsAbout 75 percent of the formal irrigation area is under sprinkler/overhead irrigation, most of the remaining area (18 percent) being under surface irrigation. Micro-irrigation (drip) is used in only 7percent of the total area.
But in the specific case of settlers and smallholders, up to 90percent of the 10000ha formal irrigation area is under surface irrigation, water being drawn from rivers, storage reservoirs or deep boreholes (Bitanihirwe, 1997). The remaining 10percent is under sprinkler irrigation.
The actual tendency is to promote irrigation systems which use more efficiently limited water resources, such as sprinklers and micro-irrigation (drip). This last system will be tested/demonstrated by SPFS (Section 4.3).
2.3.3 Large-scale commercial irrigation (FAO, 1993)To minimize the effects of drought and to improve returns on investments with high-value crops, the private sector has given a high priority to water resources development since the 1940s, particularly to reservoir construction. Currently, this agricultural sub-sector owns more than 6000 small to medium dams. Water from large government reservoirs is also used. Some of the characteristics of this sub-sector are:
The original role of this sub-sector was to develop and initially operate/manage core estates with settlers/outgrowers (Section 2.3.5) and eventually handover the scheme to these smallholders. Such incorporation of the outgrowers has been limited until recently, the priority objective of the schemes having been switched to food and strategic commodities production.
Today, most of the schemes are still operated and managed by the parastatal Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (ARDA). The main characteristics of these schemes are:
This sub-sector has mainly developed:
Farmers are settled on plots (from 0.8 ha to 10 ha) around core estates so that they can benefit, at cost, from local support services.
Most of the ARDA settler schemes are located in communal lands where a 99-year lease arrangement is the most common land tenure practice.
ARDA plans to divide parts of some of their estates into small units to be allocated to new settlers.
2.3.6 Smallholder irrigation (FAO, 1993)Since Independence in 1980, the potential role of irrigation for smallholder development has been increasingly recognized (Bitanihirwe, 1997), particularly because of:
Although smallholder irrigation development is still at a rudimentary stage (total 6000ha), the post-Independence newly developed schemes have been better designed than older schemes:
Today the tendency is for GOZ to provide all the capital development costs, including in-field works. All smallholder irrigation developments are coordinated by AGRITEX Irrigation Branch (Section 4.2), with financial/technical assistance from EU, DANIDA, UNDP/FAO (Section 2.3.7) and various bilateral donors. Many smaller projects are still developed/financed in isolation by other organizations (for example, churches, missions, NGOs). Potential for further developments is very good as demonstrated by several recent surveys.
The management of smallholder irrigation schemes differs: of the 180 developed schemes, 18 percent are still GOZ managed, 48 percent are farmer managed and 34 percent are under joint management. Government policy is now to gradually extend to all smallholder schemes the farmer management system.
2.3.7 UNDP/FAO support to smallholder irrigationSince 1986, substantial support from UNDP/FAO has been provided to smallholder irrigation (Bitanihirwe, 1997):
Recently, the NAP/ITTA has been formulated consisting of four interrelated and interdependent components (GOZ, 1997):
Each component consists of one or more projects with clearly defined objectives, outputs, inputs, budget and timeframe for its implementation.
Each project is to be implemented by a designated lead agency, but within the institutional and operational framework of NAP-WASAD, whose duration is four years. Whenever feasible, the integration of aquaculture with the irrigation project will be considered.
Fisheries in general is a minor sector of the national economy. Most important is the Lake Kariba artisanal fishery for kapenta (19 000 t/y) which accounts for about 70 percent of the total annual fish production (about 27 000 t). Aquaculture annual production is limited to 150t of fish and 15t of crustaceans (FAO, 1997). About 50 percent of this production is commercial.
The potential for aquaculture development is particularly important in the existing reservoirs (over 11 000), either through fishery enhancement in small ones or through intensive cage culture in larger ones (initiated in Kariba). Small-scale irrigation schemes have also a good potential through integrated fish farming. The demand for fresh fish is still high, in particular in remote areas, in spite of increased imports of frozen mackerel from Namibia.
Institutionally, aquaculture belongs to two different Ministries (Figure 3):
Major constraints exists in Zimbabwe which may affect aquaculture development, such as:
ALCOM has been supporting aquaculture in Zimbabwe for nearly a decade, mostly through the development of new methodologies for small-scale pond farming development and for fishery enhancement in small reservoirs (Section 4.1). Assistance is also being provided to support the integration of aquaculture into smallholder irrigation through the SPFS Programme (Section 4.3).
The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management (DNPWM) belongs to the Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tourism (MMET). Its new organizational structure has just been approved by the Public Service Commission for staffing at headquarters, provincial and station levels (Figure 3).
At Harare headquarters, two units of the new "Conservation and Research" Service have responsibilities for aquatic research:
Recently, two DNPWM teams have been fielded under the CAMFIRE Project to survey about 20 small reservoirs according to the new ALCOM-developed methodology. Results will be added to the ALCOM database for SADC aquatic systems (Section 4.1).
Research efforts have been hampered in the past by financial constraints and lack of adequately trained staff. Genuine efforts are being made to alleviate these constraints.
The well-stocked library is now supervised by a newly recruited librarian. Its computerized database is being linked to ALCOM information database (Section 4.1).
Research on the majority of crops, livestock and pastures is carried out by the public sector, mainly through the Department of Research and Specialist Services (DRSS), in the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture (Figure 3).
Within DRSS, the Agricultural Research Centre includes a Crops Research Unit made up of:
DRSS has also one staff (MSc Aquaculture, Stirling) stationed at Henderson Fish Culture Research Station (Section 3.1). She has been involved in on-farm research at Murewa on the use of available organic fertilizers and on the performance of local tilapia species.
Agricultural research is also carried out by others:
Major constraints for agricultural research are the lack of coordination between the various groups, financial constraints (public sector) and lack of qualified staff mostly due to low salaries (Bitanihirwe, 1997).
The Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme (ALCOM) is a regional programme based in Harare from where it collaborates with SADC member countries. Originally funded by SIDA (aquaculture component) and BADC (small water bodies component), it is executed by FAO since late 1986. It is now reaching the end of its third phase (1995-97).
ALCOMs objective is to enhance outputs from smallholder farming systems and economies through improved management of aquatic resources. To attain such objective, ALCOM implements four action programmes:
Training activities
are also an important part of ALCOMs work to ensure future sustainability.Some of the achievements of the programme of particular interest to this mission are the following:
A fourth phase of the ALCOM Programme (1998-2001) is under discussion with BADC. It includes four priority action programmes:
- small water body data;
- watershed data;
- data on aquatic species distribution (in collaboration with fish taxonomists);
- fisheries (experimental/commercial) time series data;
- physico-chemical time series data;
- socio-economic data on aquatic resources;
- bibliographic references;
- graphical data on water resource use, fish and fisheries.
The Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services (AGRITEX) of the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture, is the Government Department which has overall responsibility for most of the extension services (agriculture/fisheries/aquaculture) at national level.
The main objective of AGRITEX is to transform drought prone communal and resettlement areas into productive lands through the introduction of smallholder irrigation, grazing and fishery development (Bitanihirwe, 1997). Services concentrate on small-scale farmers, large-scale commercial farmers being served on request only.
Of particular interest are the Animal Production Branch and the Irrigation Branch:
AGRITEX has polyvalent agricultural extension workers based in the field, to provide technical advice to smallholder farmers. These extensionists are supported by agricultural supervisors and district officers. District and provincial subject specialists provide specialized technical support to the general extension staff. Aquaculture support, in particular, is locally provided by livestock officers and it is fully integrated into the overall agricultural extension service.
The GOZ/FAO-SPFS National Programme for the pilot phase is being now finalized (Bitanihirwe, 1997). The Zimbabwe organization responsible for overall implementation and management will be AGRITEX (Section 4.2). Day-to-day implementation of SPFS activities will be ensured/monitored by a National Management Team led by a National Coordinator (an AGRITEX senior staff) assisted by an agronomist, an agro-economist, a sociologist, an irrigation engineer and a TCDC/FAO international expert in drip irrigation. Specialized consultants (for example, for the aquaculture component) will also be involved, as required.
Pilot sites have already been selected (table below) within four smallholder irrigation schemes (IS) and one communal area (CL), located in AE Regions III, IV and V where the majority of smallholder farmers live and where food security problems are most acute.
Selected pilot sites for SPFS pilot phase
Province |
District |
Irrigation scheme/ Communal lands |
Mashonaland East | Mutoko | Nyadare 4 IS |
Midlands | Mvuma | Hama-Mavhaire IS |
Masvingo | Masvingo | Longdale B IS |
Matabeleland North | Lupane | Tshongokwe IS |
Mashonaland East | Harare | Domboshwa CL |
Production efforts will concentrate on vegetables and some high value cash crops, such as paprika, dry beans, baby corn and citrus, even for export.
Various technological options will be tested and demonstrated, including the following:
The SPFS pilot phase will have four components:
- introduction/demonstration of low-cost irrigation systems (drip irrigation) in four pilot areas;
- demonstration of the treadle pump (one site) for 20 farmers using dambos;
- transfer of scheme management to farmers;
- demonstration of improved water management and agronomic practices to increase food production.
The "Farm-level applied research methods for East and Southern Africa" (FARMESA) Programme is a sub-regional SIDA-financed field project executed by FAO (GCP/RAF/334/SWE) since July 1996 and for a first phase of four years.
Its objective is to search for alternative ways to work with resource-poor farmers, using a participatory approach for sustainable agriculture development. It primarily focuses on:
Participating countries are of two kinds:
In each of the core countries, an interdisciplinary National Coordinating Committee (NCC) assisted by a National Facilitator, decides on activities to be prioritized. Proposals are vetted by a Regional Coordinating Committee (RCC) which takes the decision on which field site activities to sponsor. National host institutions are mostly research institutions, except in Zimbabwe where it is AGRITEX (Section 4.2).
A Coordinating Unit is based in Harare. It ensures that the experiences from the different countries are shared. It is staffed by a Project Coordinator, a Methods Specialist and a Communications/Information Specialist.
All crops (including fish) are being considered and diversification is to be promoted by FARMESA. By principle, irrigation has been excluded, the target groups being the poorest dryland smallholder farmers. Two exceptions however have been accepted:
Close collaboration with ALCOM (Section 4.1) is to be developed, primarily concerning development methodology (small water bodies and pond farming), participatory monitoring and community development.
The FARMESA Project Coordinator has expressed his interest in the African Aquaculture Information Network, as well as in the African network for aquaculture-irrigation integration. Concerning this last network, the Zambia National Facilitator, in particular, could become involved in future activities.
The SADC Sector for "Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources" (FANR) is located in Harare. It is responsible for the overall coordination of the SADC sub-sectors related to food production and food security. It is an umbrella institution which covers a cluster of related subjects, such as agricultural research, crop production, livestock production, animal disease control, marine fisheries, inland fisheries (including aquaculture), forestry and wildlife. It also coordinates a Regional Food Security Programme, part of the SADC Food Security sub-sector for which Zimbabwe has full responsibility.
It is planned that UNDP/FAO assistance will become available in 1998 to establish a general SADC database linking several modules such as:
SADC/FANR has expressed interest in the planned African Aquaculture Information Network with which it wishes to become associated. ALCOM Information Service could assist with this process.
The development of the agricultural sector being seriously constrained by periodic dry spells, the government has long recognized the important role of irrigation in food security, income generation, export earnings, employment creation and economic development (Bitanihirwe, 1997). A remarkable development of the irrigation sector, both at large-scale commercial and at smallholder levels has taken place, priority being first given to the rehabilitation of old schemes and to the establishment of new schemes. It is only recently that the development strategy has switched to research and development. Overhead irrigation is well developed and it is being increasingly preferred because of its more efficient use of existing water resources. Micro-irrigation is now also being considered for similar reasons.
In spite of the existence of more than 11 000 reservoirs and three large rivers, fishe-ries development is rather limited. It is a minor sector of the economy. Available human, infrastructure and financial resources are poor.
Although crop, livestock and veterinary research carried out in Zimbabwe has received international recognition, both irrigation and fishery research have not yet reached such good quality level. Research institutions in these fields are weak and their resources are very limited. There is little coordination between the various groups involved and linkages with development are few.
The SPFS Programme has not yet been implemented. In the drafted National Programme for the pilot phase, integrated fish farming has relatively little importance.
The ALCOM regional programme has gained a good experience for the integration of smallholder fish farming with irrigation in Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia. It has also implemented a vast programme on small-water body fishery development (enhancement, management, monitoring, legislation, socio-economics, computerized database, etc.). Networking is a daily experience both in the Information Service and in the SWB Unit where the SADC Water Resources database has been developed.
It is therefore concluded that at this moment Zimbabwe does not have sufficiently strong specialized institutions to host the future network on aquaculture-irrigation integration.
It is recommended that responsibility for this network in Zimbabwe be limited to ALCOM (if a next implementation phase is approved) through which close collaboration with national institutions/projects could be established during a transition phase.
Bitanihirwe, T.Y.F., 1997. Zimbabwe: Special Programme on Food Security. National Programme Document. Harare, FAO, 44p. (draft)
FAO, 1993. National Action Programme. Zimbabwe. Rome, FAO/NAP-WASAD, 56 p.
FAO, 1997. Aquaculture production statistics 1986-1995. FAO Fish.Circ., (815, Rev.9):195p.
Government of Zimbabwe, 1997. National Action Programme on Irrigation Technology Transfer and Adoption. Rome, FAO/IPTRID, var.pag.
van der Mheen, H. 1997. Integrated small-scale irrigation and aquaculture. Mission report. Harare, FAO, 54 p.
Figure 1. Zimbabwe: administrative provinces and major towns
Figure 2. Zimbabwe agro-ecological regions
Figure 3. Organigrams of the Ministries responsible for aquaculture and irrigation research/development