Non-wood services are usually associated with the various roles that forest play beyond the direct tangible benefits that we get as food medicine, dyes, resins, etc. Services therefore, include intangible indirect benefits such as game viewing, ornamental and/or amenity tree planting, watershed/catchment protection and management, grazing and improvement of weather and climatic conditions. Other services include trees used for shade, live fences and windbreaks, soil conservation and improvement.
This is covered under the non-consumptive utilisation aspect of game in National Parks and is exclusively achieved through tourism. South Luangwa and Kafue National Parks are well stocked with game and attract a lot of international tourists, while Kasanka and Blue Lagoon National Parks have the potential to attract tourists, but are not well marketed (Kapungwe, 1996). Tourism in the form of photographic and game viewing has a high potential of bringing benefits to the country through earning of foreign currency. For example, Park entry fees for 1996 were US$176,923 for South Luangwa National Park (Kapungwe, 1996).
The most popular trees for ornamental planting in Zambia are exotics because they are fast growing and have attractive and showy flowers. However, there are a number of indigenous trees which are reasonably fast growing and attractive and can therefore be very suitable for amenity planting. The indigenous trees have the added advantages relating to suitability to local climate, soils and fire/termite resistance (Storrs 1982). Examples of trees that have so far been used for this purpose include the Ficus, Cassia, Bauhinia, Khaya and Trichilia. Other species are Sterculia, Afzelia, Albizia and Ochna, just to mention a few.
Watersheds and Catchment areas are usually Gazetted as Forest Reserves and managed under protected forests. All these areas are therefore protected by law (Forests Act, CAP 199 of the Laws of Zambia) from any form of deformation (physical, biological and chemical) and alteration of their natural state.
Zambia is dissected by a number of rivers and streams which all thrive because of the adequate vegetative cover provided by forests in watersheds and catchment areas. The Watersheds and Catchments therefore, ensure that there is perennial water in rivers and streams, ensuring irrigation, hydro-electricity, domestic and industrial consumption. Quantified in these terms, we find that watersheds earn the country millions of US Dollars in form of electricity and water tariffs, industrial/agro-products and services and creation of employment. The destruction of watersheds and catchment areas, therefore, leads to multiplier adverse effects that are detrimental to the environment and the development of the country. We would experience siltation and drying up of rivers and streams, high electricity and water tariffs/bills, loss of agro and industrial based employment, high costs for agricultural inputs and produce, etc. And the list is endless.
Currently we see such effects where in certain places, perennial rivers and streams have become seasonal and communities along such areas tell a lot of devastating stories on how aquatic life and their general living conditions have been adversely affected.
One rarely needs to be informed of the many pastures that forests provide to both domestic and wild animals alike. Pastures are present in natural forests and/or woodlands, around homesteads in agricultural fields and other individually and/or communally owned forest areas. Grazing is offered in terms of grass biomass production and browse.
There are also numerous grasslands, some of which were previously forests, but due to continued pressure from deforestation and late fires have slowly been converted to grasslands. Grasslands are therefore, either edaphic or secondary and cover most of the wetlands in the country (Chidumayo and Marjokorpi, 1997). The dominant grasses belong to the genera Acroceras, Leersia, Oryza, Panicum, Paspalum, Sacciolepsis and Vossia. Grasslands in Zambia include dambos, flood plains and the margins of pans, swamps and lakes.
Shade trees are important because they reduce on high temperatures experienced during the day. Other benefits of shade trees are beauty, fruits, as a windbreak and in improving the microclimate of the area.
Tree/shrub species for shade include:
Specie |
Known as: |
Acacia albida |
Winter thorn |
Cassia siamea |
Yellow Cassia |
Cassia spectabilis |
Golden Cassia |
Cordyla africana |
Wild mango |
Ficus species (Figs):
Specie |
Known as: |
Mangifera indica |
Mango |
Manihot glaziovii |
Mtambula, N |
Melea azedarach |
Bead tree |
Tamarindus indica |
Tamarind |
Trichilia emetica |
Musikili, N, Cape mahogany |
*(Simute, 1992; Mulofwa, 1994)
These are barriers of closely spaced trees or shrubs for protection against livestock and human interference. Fencing of fields, gardens, fodder banks, woodlots and around homesteads makes improved management practices possible. With a fenced field, a farmer can improve his/her management of crop residues, pastures, trees, etc., by keeping out livestock and other people.
Live fencing is an economic way of fencing large areas because once established living fences become permanent. They are cheap to establish and maintain as compared to barbed wire and other dead fences, which need constant maintenance. Living fences may also produce fruits, fodder and medicines (Simute, 1992; Mulofwa, 1994).
Characteristics of tree species for live fencing include:
_ thorny and or densely branched
_ Easy to establish and maintain
_ Able to withstand temporary water logging when planted in gardens
_ Fire resistant Providing useful by-products
Suitable species for live fencing therefore are:
Specie |
Known as: |
Acacia albida |
Winter thorn |
Acacia ataxacantha |
|
Acacia polyacantha |
Hook thorn |
Agave sisalana |
Sisal |
Bougainevillea spp. |
|
Ceasalpinia decapetala |
Mauritius thorn |
Balanites aegytiaca |
Desert date |
Commiphora africana |
|
Commiphora mollis |
|
Dovyalis caffra |
Kei apple |
Euphorbia tirucalli |
Rubber hedge euphorbia |
Ricinus communis |
Castor oil plant |
Ricinodendron rautanenii |
Mungongo |
Ziziphus abyssinica |
Kankande |
Ziziphus mauritiana |
Indian jujube |
Tharacantha spp. |
|
Thevetia peruviana |
Yellow oleander |
Trees and/or shrubs can be planted around fields, homesteads, etc to protect crops and buildings from strong winds. Yields of crops are known to increase when windbreaks are established in areas with strong winds. Windbreaks can also produce fruits, fodder and medicines.
Suitable species that are used as windbreaks in Zambia:
Specie |
Known as: |
Azadirachta indica |
Neem |
Cassia siamea |
Yellow cassia |
Cassia spectabilis |
Golden cassia |
Casuarina spp. |
Whistling pine |
Eucalyptus spp. |
Gums, especially for commercial farmers |
Grevillea robusta |
Silky oak |
Melea azedarach |
Bead tree |
Tamarindus indica |
Tamarind |
Trichilia emetica |
Musikili, cape mahogany |
*Simute, 1992; Mulofwa, 1994
Trees and/or shrubs can be left in the field when opening up new land for agriculture because of their ability to fix nitrogen, or to take advantage of leaf fall which will add organic matter to the soil and conserve soil moisture through mulching.
Trees and/or shrubs can be planted on grass strips (buffer strips), soil conservation structures (bunds), storms drains, marker ridges etc. The main benefits are:
_ stabilisation of soil conservation structures
_ preservation of conservation structures
_ marking of contour ridges
_ in the case of shrubs, acting as barriers to water run-off
_ provision of ground cover and fertility improvement
_ Provision of both wood and non-wood forest products.
Some trees and/or shrubs can be planted or sown for improvement of fallows. These perform the function of ground cover and fertility improvement through litter fall and nitrogen through root nodules.
Suitable species include:
Specie |
Known as: |
Acacia albida |
winter thorn |
Afzelia quanzensis |
Mupapa, pod mahogany |
Albizia harveyi |
|
Cajanus cajan |
Pigeon pea |
Cassia siamea |
Yellow cassia |
Cassia spectabilis |
golden cassia |
Grevillea robusta |
Silky Oak |
Leucaena leucocephala |
lusina, lukina |
Pericopsis angolensis |
Mubanga |
Psidium guajava |
Guava |
Sesbania sesban |
River bean |
*(Simute, 1992; Mulofwa, 1994)
