CRITERIA AND INDICATORS FOR SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT IN BHUTAN, MONGOLIA, NEPAL AND CHINA - Zhu Chunquan, Zhang Shougong, Shi Zuomin and Jiang Zeping

Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China

INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES OF CRITERIA AND INDICATORS

Sustainable forest management as a key component of global sustainable development has become a common international concern since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development (UNCED) in June 1992. The Forest Principles and Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 called for the identification of criteria and indicators to evaluate progress in countries’ efforts in practicing sustainable forest management. This has resulted in a number of national, regional and international initiatives. Altogether, eight international processes are working to develop and implement criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. More than 150 countries are involved in one or more of these ongoing initiatives at the regional, national and forest management unit levels.

The ITTO Process

The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) was the first organization to formally develop criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management resulting in the “Criteria for the Measurement of Sustainable Tropical Forest Management” in March 1992. This pioneering work provided the foundation for international initiatives to develop criteria and indicators since the UNCED. ITTO’s criteria and indicators focused primarily on sustainable tropical forest management for the production of timber. It included 5 criteria and 27 indicators applicable at the national level, and 6 criteria and 23 indicators at the forest management unit level.

In order to make the criteria and indicators more operational and useful, ITTO updated its criteria and indicators in 1998 to cover the full range of forest products and services (Table 1). This set of criteria and indicators is more similar to other sets of criteria and indicators later developed by the different initiatives.

Table 1: ITTO Criteria (Updated in July 1998)

ITTO Criteria	No. of Indicators at the National Level	No. of Indicators at the Forest Management Unit Level
1: Enabling conditions for sustainable forest management	9	9
2: Forest resource security	5	5
3: Forest ecosystem health and condition	5	5
4: Flow of forest produce	12	12
5: Biological diversity	8	8
6: Soil and water	9	9
7: Economic, social and cultural aspects	18	18
Total	66	66

The Pan-European Forest Process

The Pan-European Forest Process focuses on the development and implementation of criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management in Pan-European countries. Six criteria and 27 quantitative indicators were adopted in 1994, and later descriptive indicators at the Second Expert Level Follow-up Meeting of the Helsinki Conference in 1995. The Third Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe in June 1998 adopted the “Pan-European Operational Level Guidelines for Sustainable Forest Management” and endorsed associated indicators as a basis for international reporting and development of national indicators. The criteria and indicators are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2: Pan-European Forest Process Criteria and Number of Indicators

Pan-European Forest Process Criteria	No. of Quantitative Indicators	No. of Descriptive Indicators
Criterion 1: Maintenance and appropriate enhancement of forest resources and their contribution to global carbon cycles	5	16
Criterion 2: Maintenance of forest ecosystems health and vitality	7	4
Criterion 3: Maintenance and encouragement of productive functions of forests (wood and non-wood)	3	8
Criterion 4: Maintenance, conservation and appropriate enhancement of biological diversity in forest ecosystems.	7	16
Criterion 5: Maintenance and appropriate enhancement of protective functions in forest management (notably soil and water)	2	12
Criterion 6: Maintenance of other socio-economic functions and conditions	3	28
Total	27	84

The Montreal Process

In September 1993, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) sponsored an international seminar in Montreal, Canada, on the sustainable development of temperate and boreal forests, with a focus on developing indicators for these forests. Canada took the lead in helping to launch an initiative to develop criteria and indicators among countries with temperate and boreal forests outside of Europe, thus resulting in the “Montreal Process”. In February 1995, the Montreal Process countries, met in Santiago, Chile, and endorsed the Santiago Declaration, a comprehensive set of 7 national-level criteria and 67 indicators (Table 3).

A report compiled from members’ national reports provided baseline information and highlighted gaps in the available data for each indicator. Technical Notes were also prepared by a Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) to suggest techniques on measurements, data collection and interpretation for national-level criteria and indicators that have been endorsed by the Montreal Process. The Technical Notes also became a means for sharing experiences and expediting capacity building among member countries.

Table 3: Montreal Process Criteria and Number of Indicators

Montreal Process Criteria	No. of Indicators
1: Conservation of biological diversity	9
2: Maintenance of the productive capacity of forest ecosystems	5
3: Maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality	3
4: Conservation and maintenance of soil and water resources	8
5: Maintenance of forest contribution to global carbon cycles	3
6: Maintenance and enhancement of long-term multiple socio-economic benefits to meet the needs of societies	19
7: Legal, institutional and economic framework for forest conservation and sustainable management	20
Total	67

The Tarapoto Proposal

The countries of the Amazon made a major effort to identify and determine criteria and indicators, which pay attention to the special nature of the region’s forest ecosystems and other social and economic factors. In February 1995, eight countries of the Amazonian Cooperation Treaty adopted the Tarapoto Proposal on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainability of Amazonian Forests that identified 7 national-level criteria and 47 indicators, as well as others applicable at the forest management unit and global levels (Table 4).

Table 4: Tarapoto Proposal Criteria and Number of Indicators

Tarapoto Process Criteria at the National Level	No. of Indicators
1: Socio-economic benefits	16
2: Policies and legal and institutional framework for the sustainable development of forests	4
3: Sustainable forest production	5
4: Conservation of forest cover and biological diversity	8
5: Conservation and integral management of soil and water resources	4
6: Science and technology for the sustainable development of forests	6
7: Institutional capacity for promoting sustainable development in Amazonian	4
Sub-total at the national level	47
Tarapoto Process Criteria at the Management Unit Level
8: Legal and institutional framework	3
9: Sustainable forest production	5
10: Conservation of forest ecosystem	6
11: Local socio-economic benefits	9
Sub-total at management unit level	23
Tarapoto Process Criteria at the Global Level
12: Economic, social and environmental services of the Amazonian forest	7
Total	77

The Dry Zone Africa Process

UNEP and FAO jointly organized an Expert Meeting on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management in Dry Zone Africa in Nairobi, Kenya - in November 1995. The meeting proposed 7 criteria and 47 indicators at the regional level for Sub-Saharan Dry Zone Africa. As a follow-up, UNEP and FAO also organized a workshop in November 1997 to further develop the criteria and indicators identified at the Expert Meeting, and a Meeting on National Level Criteria and Indicators in the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) countries in December 1998. After detailed reviews, the set of SADC Initiative on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management in the Framework of the Dry Zone Africa Process was developed and consists of 7 criteria and 48 indicators (Table 5).

Table 5: Dry Zone Africa Process Criteria and Number of Indicators (Updated in 1998)

Dry-Zone Africa Process Criteria	No. of Indicators
1: Development, maintenance and improvement of forest resources, including their contribution to global carbon cycles	2
2: Conservation and enhancement of biological diversity in forest ecosystem	11
3: Maintenance and enhancement of forest ecosystem health and vitality	6
4: Maintenance and enhancement of productive functions of forests and other woodlands	5
5: Conservation and improvement of environmental and conservation functions of forests and other wood lands and combating desertification	4
6: Maintenance and enhancement of socio-economic benefits of forests and other wood lands	12
7: Adequacy and effectiveness of legal, institutional and policies frameworks for sustainable forest management	8
Total	48

The Near East Process

FAO and UNEP hosted a similar Expert Meeting in Cairo, Egypt in October 1996 to develop criteria and indicators for the Near East region. At this meeting, 7 national-level criteria and 65 indicators were endorsed for further development at the sub-regional and national levels at the 12^th Session of the Near East Forestry Commission. The follow-up Meeting of National Coordinators on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management in the Near East was held in Damascus in 1998. Most countries represented reported on important steps taken towards the implementation of criteria and indicators at the national level.

Table 6: Near East Process Criteria and Number of Indicators

Near East Process Criteria	No. of Indicators
1: Extent of forest resources	4
2: Conservation of biological diversity in forest area	11
3: Health, vitality and integrity	9
4: Productive capacity and functions	4
5: Protective and environmental functions	9
6: Maintenance and development of socio-economic functions and conditions	19
7: The legal and institutional frameworks	9
Total	65

The Central American Process

In January 1997, FAO, in collaboration with the Central American Commission for Environment and Development, held an Expert Meeting to develop criteria and indicators for the seven countries in the commission. The meeting proposed 8 criteria and 53 indicators (Table 7) for application at the national level, as well as others applicable at the regional level in the “Lepaterique Process of Central America Process”.

Table 7: Central American Process Criteria and Number of Indicators

Central American Process Criteria	No. of Indicators at the Regional Level
1: The existence of a legal, political, institutional, technical, economic and social framework which guarantees and promotes the sustainable management and conservation of forests	11
2: Forest cover	NA*
3: Forest health and vitality	NA
4: The contribution of forest ecosystem to environmental services	13
5: Biological diversity in forest systems	NA
6: Productive functions of forest ecosystems	4
7: Scientific and technological capacity for the development of forest resources	NA
8: Maintenance and improvement of the multiple social, economic and cultural benefits of forest ecosystems for dealing with the needs of different human groups	12
Total	40

*NA-Not applicable at the regional level.

Note: the total number of indicators at the national level is 53

The African Timber Organization Process

The African Timber Organization (ATO), comprising 13 tropical timber producing African countries, initiated the development of criteria and indicators in close collaboration with the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) in response to European threats to boycott tropical timber imports. The ATO process started at the forest management unit level, rather than the national level, and involves a number of field-level evaluations of criteria and indicators. The initial set of criteria and indicators was adopted by the ATO member countries in 1995. It identifies 5 principles relating to forest policy and management. Each principle is supported by a set of criteria and associated indicators (Table 8).

Table 8: ATO Principles, Criteria and Indicators

ATO Principles and Sub-principles	No. of Criteria	No. of Indicators
Principle 1: Sustainability of the forest and its multiple function is a high political priority	4	7
Principle 2: Areas devoted to forestry activities or the permanent forest estate are not declining	3	7
Principle 3: Forest are adequately managed and developed irrespective of their role	2	4
Sub-Principle 3a: Sustainable timber production (in quantity and quality) is guaranteed	4	17
Sub-Principle 3b: Sustainable production of non-timber forest products is ensured Biological diversity in forest systems	4	0
Principle 4: The main ecological functions of the forest are maintained	3	14
Principle 5: The right and duties of stakeholders should be clearly defined perceived and accepted by all	6	11
Total	26	60

Table 9 provides an overview of the eight initiatives. Four (i.e. ITTO Process, the Tarapoto Proposal, Lepaterique Process of Central America Process and the African Timber Organization Process) focus mainly on tropical forests. The Pan-European Forest and Montreal Processes deal mainly with temperate and boreal forests, while the Dry Zone Africa and the Near East Processes are developed for dry forests.

Most of these initiatives are led by international organizations except for the intergovernmental Pan-European Forest and Montreal Processes. They are political processes advancing a common understanding of sustainable forest management. The criteria and indicators generated by these processes are similar in expanding the traditional timber focus of forest management to include biodiversity, ecological services, and other socio-economic values. The 1992 ITTO criteria, being the first and developed before the UNCED, do not reflect the commitment to biodiversity and forest ecological services that is evident in the post-UNCED processes (including the updated set of criteria and indicators of ITTO in 1998). Although distinct in their structures, the criteria of all eight initiatives cover the following aspects:

· Extent of forest resources;

· Biological diversity;

· Forest productive functions;

· Forest protective and environmental functions;

· Forest ecosystem health and vitality;

· Multiple social, economic benefits and conditions; and

· Legal, institutional and economic framework, capacity to implement sustainable forest management

In response to the increasing concern about global climate change, many initiatives - Pan-European Forest, Montreal, Dry Zone Africa and ATO Processes - have included this component in their criteria. Furthermore, the Dry Zone and Near East Processes covered desertification within the criterion on protective and environmental functions of the forests, thus illustrating the specific regional interest.

Except for the ATO Process, most of the international initiatives focus on national-level criteria and indicators. The Tarapoto Proposal is unique in covering all levels from forest management unit, to the national and global levels. ITTO addresses both the forest management unit and national levels and the Near East Process includes national and global levels.

The development of criteria and indicators has gained political acceptance and momentum before being technically understood. It has been internationally recognized that criteria and indicators are tools for assessing national trends in forest conditions and forest management. They also provide a common framework for describing, monitoring and evaluating progress towards sustainable forest management over time and an implicit definition of what it means, conceptually and on the ground.

However, it has been more than seven years since UNCED. No significant progress toward practicing sustainable forest management on the ground is evident. The problem is the usual “top-down” approach in the development of criteria and indicators and the absence of strong linkages to the current forest management practices. Among the unresolved issues in implementing criteria and indicators at the national and forest management unit levels are the questions of appropriate temporal and spatial scale. Another problematic area is the application of criteria and indicators at higher hierarchical levels to take account of regional and global sustainability.

Table 9: Summary of Ongoing International Initiatives on Criteria and Indicators

INITIATIVE	ITTO	PAN-EUROPEAN FOREST	MONTREAL	TARAPOTO	DRY ZONE AFRICA	NEAR EAST	CENTRAL AMERICAN	ATO
GENERAL FEATURES
Start time	1992	1993	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	-
Eco-region	Tropical forests	Temperate and boreal forests	Temperate and boreal forests a	Tropical forests	Dry zone forests	Dry zone forests	All types of forests	Tropical forests
No. of countries b	25	38	12	8	27	30	7	13
Forest area (million ha) c	1305.046	904.577	1500.000	540.000	278.021	69.895	19.631	162.690
No. of criteria d	7 (1998)	6	7	7	7	7	8	28
No. of indicators d	117 (1998)	27	67	47	47	65	53	60
LEVELS
Forest management unit	yes	no	no	yes	no	no	no	yes
National	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	no
Global	no	no	no	yes	no	yes	no	no
FOREST RESOURCES
Extent of forest resources	yes	yes	- e	- f	yes	yes	yes	yes
Global carbon cycles	no	yes	yes	no	- g	no	no	yes
Forest ecosystem health and vitality	no	yes	yes	-	yes	yes	yes	-
Biological diversity	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	-
FOREST FUNCTIONS
Productive functions	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
Protective and environmental functions	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL NEEDS
Socio-economic functions and conditions	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
Policy and legal framework; capacity to implement sustainable forest management	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes

^a Mexico, China, Australia and United States of America also have some tropical forests.

^b Some countries participate in more than one process. The total number of the countries has some overlap among processes, such ITTO with Tarapoto Proposal and Central American Process.

^c Some countries are represented in more than one initiative, notably Russia (forest area of 739,729,000 ha), which is included in both the Pan-European Forest and Montreal Processes.

^d All the number of criteria and indicators are at the national level except for ATO which is at the forest management unit level.

^e In the Montreal Process, the forest resource is not considered a separate criterion, but an indicator for two other criteria: (i) conservation of biological diversity; and (ii) maintenance of the productive capacity of forest ecosystem.

^f In the Tarapoto Proposal, the criteria ‘Extent of forest resources’ and ‘Biological diversity’ are merged into one single criterion ‘Conservation of forest cover and of biological diversity’.

^g In the Dry Zone Africa Proposal, the criteria ‘Global carbon cycle’ and ‘Extent of forest resources’ are merged into one single criterion.

A further crucial issue is how to simplify criteria and indicators and directly relate them to practical forest management. Criteria and indicators only provide a framework for collecting and reporting data and information for further analyses. It is difficult to judge the sustainability of forest ecosystems based only on the reporting of criteria and indicators. There are clear demands for further developing and refining the current methodologies to analyze and evaluate the indicators for assessing the sustainability of the forest management.

FOREST MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA AND INDICATORS IN THE REGION

The general information on Bhutan, China, Mongolia and Nepal are summarized in Table 10.

Table 10: Country Data of Bhutan, China, Mongolia and Nepal*

Country Data	Bhutan	China	Mongolia	Nepal
Total land area (thousand ha)	4,700	932,641	156,650	13,680
Total forest area (thousand ha)	2,756	133,323	9,406	4,822
Forest cover (%)	58.6	14.3	6.0	35.2
Natural forest (thousand ha)	2,748	99,523	9,406	4,766
Total change in forest cover 1990-95 (thousand ha)	-47	-433	0	-274
Annual change in forest cover 1990-95 (%)	-0.3	-0.1		-1.1
Population (million)	1.6	1,221.5	2.4	21.9
Population growth, 1990-95 (%)	1.2	1.1	2.0	2.6
Rural population (%)	93.6	69.8	39.1	86.3
GNP per person in US$	170	490	400	160

* Source: FAO- State of the World’s Forests 1997

Bhutan

The Kingdom of Bhutan, with an area of about 4.7 million ha, is a landlocked country in the eastern Himalayas, with some of the most rugged and mountainous terrain in the world, climbing from about 200 m in elevation in the South to over 7,550 m in the North. Bhutan is heavily forested, with 58.6 percent of forest cover and a variety of natural forest types including fir, mixed coniferous, chir pine (Pinus roxburghii), and broadleaf forests. Nature parks and reserves cover 26 percent of the country’s land area with a relatively high proportion of protected forests. Even accessible forests remain relatively undisturbed. Bhutan’s potential for producing non-wood forest products, such as fodder, bamboo, medicinal plants, natural dyes, pine resin, lemon grass and forest foods, is considerable. National fuelwood requirements are high due to the absence of alternative energy sources. Fuelwood production meets 83 percent of the total energy demand. The arable land is limited. Most rural households own livestock, which graze in the forests and pastures.

Government policy specifies that 60 percent of the country’s land area should remain under forest. Bhutan has progressed through a National Forestry Program since the early 1990s. It focuses on land-use planning, natural conservation, watershed management, forest management, integrated forestry development, human resource development and institutional strengthening. The 8^th Fiscal Year Plan in 1996 went further to include sustainable forest management, nature conservation and protected area development, and social forestry and extension. The Government of Bhutan also recognizes that shortage of qualified human resources, lack of forest inventory data and forest management plans, inappropriate land-use planning, unsound forest industrial structure and policy, are major constraints to sustainable forest management.

Mongolia

Less than 10 percent of Mongolia’s land area is covered by forests. They are mainly located in the northern parts of the country, along the Russian border, forming a transition zone between the Siberian taiga and the Central Asian steppe zones. The taiga belt forests comprise mainly larch (Larix sibirica) and cedar (Pinus cembra) species, with Pinus silvestris and Betula spp. also being relatively common. Significant areas of arid forest and shrub land are located in the southern and southwestern parts of the country, mainly saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendron) forest. All forests and land in Mongolia are state-owned. A network of 40 protected areas covers large parts of the country. Fires destroy significant areas of forest and steppes woodland each year.

Nepal

Around 35 percent of Nepal’s land area is covered by forest, some of which is heavily degraded. The wide range of topographic conditions in the country allows for a large variety of forest types. The distribution of natural forests generally follows altitudinal zones. The most common, below 1000 m, is tropical forest, predominantly of Shorea robusta. Sub-tropical forests occur between 1,000 - 2,000 m, and are coniferous or broadleaved. The principal coniferous species is chir pine (Pinus roxburghii). The broadleaf forest is a mix of mainly chestnuts, alders and chilaune (Schima wallichii). Temperate forests, between 2,000 - 3,000 m, include a mix of oak, pine and rhododendron. Sub-alpine forests are found from around 3,000 m up to 4,200 m with a mix of firs, beech, rhododendron and juniper. Nepal has a modest area of plantation forest. Almost 15 percent of the country’s land area is designated as national parks, wildlife reserves or conservation areas.

China

China possesses only 3 - 4 percent of the world’s forest area that cannot meet the needs of the population. Its forest cover is 133.7 million ha, amounting to only 13.92 percent of the total land area with a total growing stock of 11,785 million m³. About 45.3 percent of the total forest cover is state-owned and administrated by the State Forestry Administration, and 54.7 belongs to the communes monitored by the State Forestry Administration. However, the growing stock of the collective-owned forest resources is only 32.2 million m³ or 30 percent of the total growing stock in China.

The largest forests lie in the northeast and inner Mongolian provinces, the ten southern provinces, and Sichuan and Yunnan provinces. The southern forests are mainly lowland rain and monsoonal forests. China has around 870 nature reserves covering more than 6 percentage of the country. It also has the world’s most extensive plantation estates, in excess of 20 million ha.

The result of over-utilization is a shift from high value mature forest to degraded and young forest. This is contributing to a severe imbalance in the age-class structure and the quality of the forest stands. It is estimated that more than 80 percentage of all forests in China is now in immature age classes. The country is facing a worsening imbalance between supply and demand for wood products, particularly for wood of commercial value, driven in part by the Government’s economic development policies. A national survey of wood supply and consumption patterns indicated that by 2010 consumption would reach 180 million m³ for commercial logs and 80 million m³ for fuelwood, leading to a large wood deficit. The gap between demand and domestic supply of wood, excluding fuelwood, is expected to increase to about 60 million m³ over the next decade.

Forest Management in the Dry Zone of China

The arid and semi-arid areas of China are mainly found in mid- and warm temperate zones of the northwest, including most parts of Xinjiang Autonomous Region, Qinghai Province, Ningxia Autonomous Region and Gansu Province; parts of Shanxi Province, Shaanxi Province, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Hebei Province and Liaoning Province.

Forests in these dry areas cover only 15.3 million ha. The growing stock accounts for only 7.7 percentage of the national total volume. The extent of plantations, however, is higher than the national average - 34.7 percentage compared to 26.7 percentage respectively. A summary of the area and stock volume is shown in Table 11.

Table 11: Area and Stock of Plantations and Woodland in the Three North Shelterbelt Program (thousand ha; thousand m³)

Ownership	Forest Stand		Open Forests
	Area	Volume	Area	Volume
State-owned	1,450	49,811	216	2,539
Collective-owned	2,727	82,088	548	5,258
Total	4,177	131,899	764	7,797

The natural forests are located above 1000 m in elevation, and mainly on Tianshan Mountain and Aertai Mountain of Xinjiang, Qilian Mountain of Gansu and Yinshan Mountain of Inner Mongolia. The forests on Aertai Mountain are populated with Larix sibirica and Picea sibirica, the northern slope of Tianshan Mountain with Picea schrenkiana, the northern slope of Qilian Mountain with Picea crassifolia and the southern slope with Sabina przewalskii respectively. The forests in Yinshan Mountain are mainly deciduous, with Populus tremula and Betula spp., accompanied by shrub species such as Vaccinium vitisidaea, Vaccinium myrtillus, Rosa acicularis, Lonicera and Sorbus.

The forests were harvested for timber in the past, thus leading to several problems such as depletion of forest resources, reduced water levels, soil erosion and desertification. To counter insufficient wood supplies and environmental problems, China is implementing a number of large-scale forestry ecological programs in its arid and semi-arid areas within the Three-North Shelterbelt Development Program, the National Program to Combat Desertification and the Taihang Mountain Afforestation Program. Through great efforts over the past 20 years, large areas of Populus and Sophora plantations have been established. To promote local economic development, commercial plantations have also been established in this region, mainly with Prunus, Malus, Ziziphus, Vitis, Juglans and Quercus.

Through these various programs, environmental conditions have improved to some extent. The plantations have met timber demands for construction and local fuelwood. Income and agricultural production have been raised and living conditions have improved. Forest coverage has increased from 5 percentage in 1975 to 9 percentage in 1997. In total, 1.1 million ha of farmland in this area have been protected by shelterbelt networks. Production has increased by about 10 to 30 percentage. By 1998, 7 million ha were rehabilitated through implementation of the National Program to Combat Desertification, although some problems still need to be resolved, including:

· Conflicts between forestry and grazing

· Conflicts between forestry and agricultural development

· Mono-culture plantations

· Lack of human resource development and capacity

· Lack of capital resources and investments

· Low level of capability in science and technology

Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management at the National Level in China

China, as one of the 12 member countries of the Montreal Process, has been participating in other international initiatives on criteria and indicators. Most recently, the Chinese Government has taken a series of significant measures to promote sustainable forest management. Important activities include the formulation and implementation of a series of key programs and policies, such as the Forestry Action Plan for China’s Agenda 21, the Outline of China’s Ecological Development Programme, the Action Plan of Protection of Biodiversity in China, and other research, capacity building and extension activities.

To effectively implement sustainable forest management in China, a research group was formed to develop criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. Under the leadership of the State Forestry Administration, formulation of criteria and indicators was put into effect by the Sustainable Forestry Research Centre (Chinese Academy of Forestry). Research on demonstration regions has been initiated to further test and improve the criteria and indicators until they can be implemented in line with criteria and indicators from international initiatives, especially the Montreal Process.

The development of criteria and indicators is an important step in implementing the Forestry Action Plan for China’s Agenda 21, a blueprint for China’s forestry in the 21^st Century. Experts from various fields tested and reviewed a provisional Framework of Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management in China, with 8 criteria and 80 indicators. Eleven of the indicators can be implemented, 55 require further investigation, and 9 need long-term research and development, and 5 remain uncertain (Table 12).

Table 12: Framework of National-level Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management in China

	CHINA’S FRAMEWORK		Montreal Process
Ref.	Criteria and Indicators	Types	Ref.
1	Conservation of Biological Diversity		1
1.1	Ecosystem diversity		1.1
1.1.1	Extent of area by forest types relative to total forest area	A	1.1.a
1.1.2	Extent of area by forest type and by age class or successional stage	B	1.1.b
1.1.3	Area and percentage of plantation by broadleaved species and coniferous species	B	NA
1.1.4	Extent of area by forest type in protected area categories as defined by IUCN or other classification systems	B	1.1.c
1.1.5	Extent of area by forest type in protected area categories and by age class or successional stage	D	NA
1.1.6	Fragmentation of forest types	C	1.1.d
1.2	Species diversity
1.2.1	The number of forest dependent species	B	1.2.a
1.2.2	The status of forest dependent species at risk of not maintaining viable breeding populations, as determined by legislation or scientific assessment	A	1.2.b
1.3	Genetic diversity		1.3
1.3.1	Number of forest dependent species that occupy a small portion of their former range	B	1.3.a
1.3.2	Population levels of representative species from diverse habitats monitored across their range	C	1.3.b
2	Maintenance of the Productive Capacity of Forest Ecosystems		2
2.1	Area of forest land and net area of forest land available for timber production	A	2.a
2.2	Area and total growing stock of different forest type	B	NA
2.3	Ratio of different types of forest land in the total forest land	A	NA
2.4	Total growing stock of forests for timber	B	2.b
2.5	Area and growing stock of plantations	B	2.c
2.6	Distribution of area and stock of forest for wood production by age-class	B	NA
2.7	Annual cutting of forest for timber should not exceed the annual growth of forests	A	cf. 2.d
NA	Annual removal of wood products compared to the volume determined to be sustainable	NA	2.d
2.8	Annual removal of non-timber forest products (fur-bearers, berries, mushroom, game), compared to the levels determined to be sustainable	B	2.e
3	Maintenance of Forest Ecosystem Health and Vitality		3
3.1	Area and percentage of forest affected by process or agents beyond the range of historic variation	B	3.a
3.2	Area and percentage of forest land subject to levels of specific air pollutants	A	cf. 3.b
NA	Area and percentage of forest land subject to levels of specific air pollutants or ultraviolet B that may cause negative impacts on the forest ecosystem	NA	3.b
3.3	Area and percentage of forest land with diminished biological components indicative of changes in fundamental ecological process and/or ecological continuity	B	3.c
4	Conservation and Maintenance of Soil and Water Resources		4
4.1	Area and percentage of forest land with significant soil erosion	B	4.a
4.2	Area and percentage of cultivated land on slope over 25 degrees which have been turned back into forest land	B	NA
4.3	Area and percentage of forest land for soil and water conservation in those important regions	B	cf. 4.b
NA	Area and percentage of forest land managed primarily for protective functions	NA	4.b
4.4	Percentage of stream kilometers in forested catchment in which stream flow and timing has significantly deviated from the historic range of variation	C	4.c
4.5	Range of changes in physical and chemical properties of stream in forested catchment	C	cf. 4.f & 4.g
NA	Percentage of water bodies in forest areas with significant variance of biological diversity from historic range of variability	NA	4.f
NA	Percentage of water bodies in forest areas with significant variance from historic range of variability in pH, dissolved oxygen, levels of chemical, sedimentation or temperate change	NA	4.g
4.6	Controlled area and control percentage of areas with soil and water losses, intensity of which is over light	B	NA
4.7	Controlled area and control percentage of areas with soil and water losses, intensity of which is light	B	NA
4.8	Area and percentage of cultivated land on slope on which maintenance and conservation of soil and water resources have been taken into account according to regulations of the government	B	NA
4.9	Area and percentage of man-made forest which has a serious degrading of site index	C	cf. 4.d& 4.e
NA	Area and percentage of forest land with significantly diminished soil organic matter and/or changes in other soil chemical properties	NA	4.d
NA	Area and percentage of forest land with significant compaction or changes in soil physical properties resulting from human activities	NA	4.e
4.10	Area and percentage of broadleaf forest in man-made forests	A	NA
4.11	Area and percentage of different tree species	A	NA
4.12	Area and percentage of replanted man-made forests	D	NA
4.13	Area and percentage of land on slope on which maintenance and conservation of soil and water resources have been taken into account in silviculture according to regulations of the government	B	NA
4.14	Intensity, area and percentage of protection of forest ground vegetation	B	NA
NA	Area and percentage of forest land experiencing an accumulation of persistent toxic substances	NA	4.h
5	Conservation of Forest Contribution to Global Carbon Cycles		5
5.1	Area of forests	A	NA
5.2	Total forest ecosystem biomass and carbon pool, and if appropriate, by forest types, age class, and successional stages	B	5.a
5.3	Area and consumption of forests for energy resources and its contribution	C	NA
5.4	Production and consumption of forest products and its contribution	C	5.c
5.5	Area of cutting and its contribution	B	NA
5.6	Absorption of carbon by forest	D	cf. 5.b
5.7	Carbon emission by soil	D	cf. 5.b
NA	Contribution of forest ecosystems to the total global carbon budget, including absorption and release of carbon	NA	5.b
5.8	Release of CO2 and CH4 by peat	D	NA
6	Maintenance and Strengthening of Long-term Multiple Benefits of Forests		6
6.1	Growing and consumption, including employment		6.1+6.5
6.1.1	Population rate and economic rate	A	NA
6.1.2	Supply and consumption of wood and wood products, including consumption per capita	B	6.1.c
6.1.3	Upper limitation for annual removal of wood, and the area and location of forests available for timber production and its changes by year	B	NA
6.1.4	Supply and demand of wood and non-wood products, including their export and import	C	NA
NA	Supply and consumption/use of non-wood products	NA	6.1.f
6.1.5	Value and volume of wood and wood/non-wood product production, including value added through downstream processing, and value of wood and non-wood product production as percentage of GDP	B	6.1.a+ 6.1.b+ 6.1.d
NA	Degree of recycling of forest products	NA	6.1.e
6.1.6	Direct and indirect employment in the forest sector and forest sector employment as a proportion of total employment	B	6.5.a
6.1.7	Production efficiency rate, average wage rates and injury rates in major employment categories within the forest sector	B	cf.6.5.b
NA	Average wage rates and injury rates in major employment categories within the forest sector	NA	6.5.b
NA	Viability and adaptability to changing economic conditions, of forest dependent communities, including indigenous communities	NA	6.5.c
NA	Area and percentage of forest land used for subsistence purpose	NA	6.5.d
6.2	Investment of forestry		6.3
6.2.1	Value of investment, including investment in forest growing, forest health and management, planted forests, wood processing, recreation and tourism	B	6.3.a
6.2.2	Level of expenditure on research and development, education, and extension and use of new and improved technologies	B	6.3.b+ 6.3.c
6.2.3	Rates of return on investment	B	6.3.d
6.3	Forest recreation and tourism, demands and assessment of culture, social and spirits		6.2+6.4
6.3.1	Value, area and percentage of forest land managed for general recreation and tourism, in relation to the total area of forest land. Number and type of facilities available for general recreation and tourism, and number of visitor days attributed to recreation and tourism, in relation to population and forest area	B	6.2.a+ 6.2.b+ 6.2.c
6.3.2	Area and percentage of forest land managed in relation to the total area of forest land to protect the range of culture, social and spiritual needs and values	B	6.4.a
NA	Non-consumptive use forest value	NA	6.4.b
7	Legal and Policy Protection Systems		7.1-7.3
7.1	Legislation		7.1
7.1.1	Forest resource ownership	B	7.1.a
7.1.2	Institution for management of forest resources	B	7.1.b+ 7.1.e 7.2.b
NA	Forest management to conserve special environmental, cultural, social and/or scientific values	NA	7.1.e
7.1.3	Encouraging best practice codes for forest management	B	7.1.d
7.1.4	Adopting institution of document management in managing forest resources	B	NA
7.1.5	Strengthening administrative regulations in forest management	B	cf. 7.1.b
NA	Providing opportunities for public participation in public policy and decision-making related to forest and public access to information	NA	7.1.c
7.2	Policy		7.2
7.2.1	For public participation in forestry	B	7.2.a+ 7.1.c
NA	Undertaking and implementing periodic forest-related planning, assessment, and policy review including cross-sectoral planning and coordination	NA	7.2.b
7.2.2	Developing and maintaining human resource skills	B	7.2.c
7.2.3	Adjusting the structure of forestry industry	B	NA
7.2.4	Developing and maintaining efficient physical infrastructure	B	7.2.d
NA	Enforcing laws, regulations and guidelines	NA	7.2.e
7.3	Economic framework		7.3
NA	Investment and taxation policies and a regulatory environment in order to meet long-term demands for forest products and services	NA	7.3.a
7.3.1	Favorable policy on forestry investment and taxation	B	cf. 7.3.a
7.3.2	Adopt policy collecting silviculture expenditure	B	cf. 7.3.a
7.3.3	Establish forest ecological compensation system	C	cf. 7.3.a
7.3.4	Strengthen institution of forest funds	B	cf. 7.3.a
7.3.5	Expand fund channel for forestry construction	B	cf. 7.3.a
7.3.6	Absorb and exploitation of oversees funds to seed up major project construction in forestry	B	cf. 7.3.a
7.3.7	Speed up construction of institute for modern forestry enterprise	B	cf. 7.3.a
7.3.8	Establish fair trading on forest products gradually	B	7.3.b
8	Information and Technological Supporting Systems		7.4-7.5
8.1	Measurement and monitoring		7.4
8.1.1	Availability and extent of up-to-date data, statistics and other information important to measuring or describing indicators associated with criteria 1-7	A	7.4.a
8.1.2	Scope, frequency and statistical reliability of forest inventories, assessments, monitoring and other relevant information	B	7.4.b
8.1.3	Compatibility with other countries in measuring, monitoring and reporting on indicators	B	7.4.c
8.2	Research and development		7.5
8.2.1	Development of scientific understanding of forest ecosystem characteristics and function	B	7.5.a
8.2.2	Development of methodologies to measure and integrate environmental and social costs and benefits into markets and public policies, and to reflect forest-related resource depletion or replenishment in national accounting systems	B	7.5.b
8.2.3	Evaluation of the contribution of science and technology	B	cf.7.5.c
8.2.4	Enhancement of ability to predict impacts of human intervention on forests	B	7.5.d
8.2.5	Ability to predict impacts on forests of possible climate change	B	7.5.e

NA-Not applicable

*Indicator type: A-implementation now; B-requiring some R&D; C-requiring long-term R&D; D-uncertain

Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management at the Sub-national Level in China

China has developed its criteria and indicators at two sub-national levels, i.e. the regional and forest management unit levels. The criteria and indicators at the sub-national levels should be more specific to the local conditions within the national framework. Indicators that are not measurable at the sub-national levels should be omitted, although they might be important at the national level. Furthermore, to effectively evaluate at the national level, it is necessary to weigh each indicator at sub-national levels in accordance to the local objectives of the forest management unit.

Since 1997, funded by the UNDP, identification and testing of criteria and indicators at the regional level have been conducted in Yichun in Heilongjiang Province, Fenyi in Jiangxi Province, Zhangye in Gansu Province, and representative sites of the Northeast State-owned Forest Zone, South Collective-owned Forest Zone, and Northwest Dry Land Forest Zone, respectively. The draft sets of regional-level criteria and indicators, each with 8 criteria similar to the national level, were developed for these three zones (Table 13). In total, the 77 indicators for Yichun focus more on the maintenance of forest productivity, while the 70 indicators for Zhangye concentrated more on environmental and social issues (water resource, conservation forest, shelterbelt, and cash tree plantations). The 60 indicators for Fenyi are related more to forest ownership, plantations, and commercial plantations.

Table 13: Indicators at the Regional Level in China

Criteria and Indicators		National level	Sub-national level
			Yichun, Heilongjiang	Fenyi, Jiangxi	Zhangye, Gansu
1. Biodiversity		10	9	11	14
	Ecosystem	6	4	6	10
	Species	2	2	3	2
	Genetics	2	3	2	2
2. Productivity		8	12	9	8
3. Health & Vitality		3	3	3	8
4. Soil & Water		14	8	11	8
5. Carbon cycles		8	5	3	4
6. Multiple benefits		12	14	9	12
6.1. Growing & Consumption		7	9	4	9
6.2. Investment of Forestry		3	3	4	2
6.3. Recreation, culture, social, etc.		2	2	1	1
7. Legal & Policy		17	18	10	10
7.1. Legislation		5	8	3	3
7.2. Policy		4	6	3	3
7.3. Economic framework		8	4	4	4
8. Information & Technology		8	8	5	8
8.1. Measurement & Monitoring		3	3	1	3
8.2. Research & Development		5	5	2	5
Total		80	77	60	72

The criteria and indicators are being developed and tested at the forest management unit level in the three representative sites, including selection of the indicators, feasibility studies for data collection and the processing for the reporting of criteria and indicators. Most of the forest management unit-level indicators are developed from Criteria 1-4 (Table 14).

Table 14: Criteria and Number of Possible Indicators at the Forest Management Unit Level in Three Representative Forest Zones of China

Criterion	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	Total
Dagangshan, Fenyi, Jiangxi	10	5	4	8	3	8	9	4	51
Xishui, Zhangye, Gansu	11	5	4	7	4	6	10	0	47
Fenlin, Yichun, Heilongjiang	8	10	1	4	1	7	7	0	38

China faces many constrains in implementing criteria and indicators, such as limited forest resources, ecological and environmental degradation, increasing population, and economic growth. Economic development potential in the mountains is limited, exacerbating poverty and environmental degradation. Science and technology also require greater environmental awareness and wider public understanding. Therefore, strengthening education and training, and increasing public awareness among foresters are crucial in promoting sustainable forest management. At the same time, implementation of criteria and indicators also requires supporting relevant policies and regulations.

SUGGESTED CRITERIA AND INDICATORS FOR THE REGION

The international initiatives of defining and testing criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management aim to provide a common framework for promoting the participation, monitoring and evaluation of the progress toward sustainable forest management worldwide. The development of criteria and indicators is a dynamic and collaborative process, which requires the participation of all stakeholders. Therefore, it is important to encourage countries to be evolved in the international initiatives and to build their capacity. Despite differences in the criteria and indicators of the various international initiatives, the core elements are similar. New initiatives should seek consistency with the existing processes to facilitate future convergence. The following suggestions for criteria and indicators for the Dry Zones in Bhutan, China, Mongolia and Nepal are one step in that direction (Table 15).

Table 15: Proposed Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management in the Region (Bhutan, China, Mongolia and Nepal)

Criteria and Indicators
1	Extent of forest resources and the conditions
1.1	Area and percentage of forests and other wooded (including plantations, agroforestry, shelterbelts) lands to the total land area
1.2	Biomass, standing volume, growing stock and carbon storage of forests and other wood lands
2	Conservation and enhancement of biological diversity
2.1	Ecosystem diversity
2.1.1	Distribution of forest ecosystems (area and percentage of the forest types and other land types)
2.1.2	Areas of forest reserves and protected areas
2.1.3	Area lost annually of forest ecosystem containing endemic species
2.2	Species diversity
2.2.1	Number of forest dependent species
2.2.2	The status (rare, endangered, threatened or extinct) of forest dependent species and the change population size of species at risk
2.3	Genetic diversity
2.3.1	Number of forest species reduced distinctly in distribution range
2.3.2	Stand amount and area of tree seed orchard and seed reserve for conserving or improving forest genetic resources
2.3.3	Area and percentage of stand by plantations of exotic species
3	Maintenance and enhancement of productive functions of forest and other wooded land
3.1	Percentage of forest and other wooded lands managed according to an integrated management plan
3.2	Total area of forest land and net area for timber production
3.3	Area, standing volume and its annual increment of major forest types
3.4	Periodical balance between growth and removal of wood products
3.5	Managed and sustainable extraction of non-wood forest products (e.g. fodder, seed, fruits, fern, medicinal materials, consumptive wildlife utilization, etc.)
4	Maintenance and enhancement of forest ecosystem health and vitality
4.1	Area and percentage of forest types affected by diseases, pests, wild and domesticated animals, competition from introduced species
4.2	Area and percentage of forest types affected by fire, storm, flood, drought, and wind erosion
4.3	Area and percentage of forest types affected by human activities
5	Maintenance and enhancement of forest protective and environmental functions
5.1	Area and percentage of forests and other wooded lands managed mainly for protection purposes (e.g. for protection and/or rehabilitation of agricultural or range lands, and/or rehabilitation of degraded lands and/or areas prone to desertification and relevant important infrastructure works)
5.2	Areas and percentage of forest and other wooded areas managed mainly for the water source conservation, protection of watersheds, river zones and flood control
5.3	Area and percentage of forest land with significant soil erosion (different degree)
5.4	Area and percentage of farmland above 25 degrees converted to forests
5.5	Percentage and kilometers of stream in forest watershed in which stream flow and timing has significantly deviated from the historic of variation
5.6	Sedimentation for the streams with significant variation from the historic range
5.7	Area of sand dunes annually stabilized through tree/shrub planting
5.8	Areas and efficiency of trees/shrubs planted in stabilizing sand dunes or rehabilitating eroded hillsides
5.9	Effective of plan formulated for managing trees/shrubs planted for desertification control
6	Maintenance and enhancement of long-term multiple socio-economic benefits
6.1	Indicators for economic benefits
6.1.1	Value of wood products
6.1.2	Value of non-wood forest products
6.1.3	Ecotourism (incl. hunting, recreation)
6.1.4	The output and value from the processing for wood products and non-wood products
6.1.5	Share of forest sector in GNP
6.1.6	Value from biomass energy
6.1.7	Forest sector trade balance
6.1.8	Investment in forests and forestry industries, incl. natural forest conservation, forest recreation and ecotourism
6.1.9	Investment in forest education, research and extension
6.1.10	Degree of recycling of forest products
6.2	Indicators of social benefits
6.2.1	Direct and indirect employment in the forestry sector and forestry sector employment as a proportion of total employment
6.2.2	Degree to which social, cultural and spiritual needs met
6.2.3	Benefits accruing to local communities (with particular emphasis on women and youth)
6.2.4	Contributions to food security
6.2.5	Area and percentage of forest land managed in relation to the total area of forest land to protect the range of cultural, social and spiritual needs and values
7	Legal, institutional and policies framework for sustainable forest management
7.1	Existence of a national forest policy in harmony with other sectoral policies
7.2	Existence of multi-sectoral participation in establishing periodic forest-related planning, assessment, and policy review including cross-sectoral planning and coordination
7.3	Clarifies property right, security of tenure, incl. status of length, exclusivity, enforceability, transferability
7.4	Provides opportunities for public participation in public policy and decision-making related to forest and public access to information
7.5	Existence of a comprehensive legislative and regulatory framework providing, e.g. equitable access to resources, alternative forms of conflict resolution and consideration of land occupancy and cultural right of local populations
7.6	Existence of institutional, human and financial capacity to implement the national forestry policy, and relevant national and international laws, instruments and regulations
7.7	Existence of research and development capacity
7.8	Existence of incentives for investments in the forestry
7.9	Existence of foundation and institution for forest resource and wild animal resource monitoring
7.10	Existence and Implementation of a regional forest ecological compensation system

STRATEGIC PLAN

The continuing support from international organizations and participating countries is necessary for implementing criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management in Asia. The priority for promoting the testing and adaptation of common criteria and indicators for sustainable management of dry forests is to study the feasibility of establishing a regional process, supported by international organizations and adopted by the countries in the region. The suggested strategy and timeframe are shown in Table 16.

Table 16: Strategic Plan and Timeframe for Regional, National and Local Levels of Testing Criteria and Indicators of Dry Forests in the Region

Strategic Plan	Timeframe	Group Responsible
Distribution of the recommendations for establishing an international process and the Framework of National-level Criteria and Indicators based on the outcome of the FAO/UNEP/ITTO/USFS/IIFM Workshop on National-level Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management of Dry Forests in Asia in Bhopal, India, 30 November - 3 December 1999. Reporting to IFF.	December, 1999	FAO/UNEP/ITTO/USFS and countries in Asia
Identify potential sources of external assistance, technical and financial support for the regional process and keep the countries in the region informed.	December 1999 - January 2000	FAO/UNEP/ITTO/USFS
Countries in Asia report back on the adoption of the Asia Dry Forests Process and the Framework of Regional and National-level Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management of Dry Forests	February 2000	Countries in the region
Hold a meeting to establish a Working Group for follow-up actions for testing criteria and indicators in the region and to formally link with international organizations and initiatives. Define the terminology related to criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management	Autumn 2000	FAO/UNEP/ITTO/USFS and member countries
Build capacity and report on progress at the national level and plan for sub-national development and testing of criteria and indicators	Early 2001	FAO/UNEP/ITTO/USFS and member countries
Share experiences with other ongoing international initiatives for regional and national levels and report the progress on sub-national levels in each of the member countries	Late 2001	FAO/UNEP/ITTO/USFS and member countries
Test and report at regional, national and local levels	Continuation of above actions	FAO/UNEP/ITTO/USFS and member countries

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