J. Lamers, G. Dürr and P. Feil1
John Lamers is a member of the consultancy group PACTeam and was the former project coordinator of Diakonie Emergency Aid Azerbaijan. He can be contacted at: Viktoriastr. 82, 52066 Aachen, Germany; tel.: (+49) (0)241 502566; e-mail: [email protected].
Georg Dürr is the German Agency for Technical Cooperation's (GTZ) coordinator for a joint Azerbaijan-German project to support private initiatives in agriculture. He can be contacted at: Ministry of Agriculture, S. Gurbanov Str. 4, Baku, Azerbaijan.
Petra Feil has worked as an independent consultant on short-term assignments in Azerbaijan. She can be contact at: Brabantstr. 28, 52070 Aachen, Germany; tel: (+49) (0)241 4465999; e-mail: [email protected]
The Republic of Azerbaijan, formerly part of the Soviet Union, is in the process
of rebuilding and restructuring its agricultural sector in order to strengthen
self-sustained production and consumption. One avenue being pursued is the privatization
of former state and cooperative farms. The civil service advocates investment
in modern farm technology with little consideration for the training of farmers
or the development of advisory services. This creates a serious obstacle to
agricultural development, as only a minority of the new landowners have practical
farming experience. In order to address this policy gap, two German bilateral
organizations are supporting the establishment of decentralized information,
training and advisory services that keep situation-specificity, system flexibility,
financial sustainability and accountability to the forefront.
Développer un système de vulgarisation agricole centré sur les clients en Azerbaïdjan
La République d'Azerbaïdjan, autrefois partie de l'URSS, est en train de reconstruire et restructurer son secteur agricole afin de renforcer l'autosuffisance de la production et d'accroître la consommation. Une des voies entreprises est la privatisation des anciennes fermes et coopératives agricoles d'État. L'administration publique encourage l'investissement dans les technologies agricoles de pointe sans pour autant se préoccuper de la formation des exploitants ou du développement des services consultatifs. Cela freine sérieusement le développement de l'agriculture étant donné que seule une minorité des nouveaux propriétaires fonciers peut se prévaloir de l'expérience pratique nécessaire. Afin de combler les lacunes de cette politique, deux organisations bilatérales allemandes soutiennent la mise en place de services décentralisés d'information, de formation et de conseils tout en tenant particulièrement compte de la spécificité des situations, et en privilégiant la flexibilité, la durabilité et la viabilité financière du système.
Elaboración de un sistema de asesoramiento agrícola orientado a los clientes en Azerbaiyán
La República de Azerbaiyán, que antes formaba parte de la Unión Soviética, está reconstruyendo y reestructurando su sector agrícola para aumentar la producción y el consumo autónomos. Un camino que se está siguiendo es la privatización de las ex fincas cooperativas y estatales. La administración pública fomenta las inversiones en tecnología agrícola moderna, prestando escasa atención a la capacitación de los agricultores o la organización de servicios de asesoramiento. Esto constituye un serio obstáculo para el desarrollo agrícola, puesto que sólo hay una minoría de nuevos propietarios de tierras con experiencia agrícola práctica. A fin de hacer frente a este vacío normativo, dos organizaciones bilaterales alemanas están prestando apoyo al establecimiento de servicios de información, capacitación y asesoramiento descentralizados, teniendo presentes sobre todo la especificidad de las situaciones, la flexibilidad de los sistemas, la sostenibilidad financiera y la rendición de cuentas.
The Republic of Azerbaijan, which has been independent since 1991, is in the
process of transition from command-state to market economy. This coastal, oil-rich
country located in the Caucasian region is inhabited by 7.5 million people.
It covers a land area of 86 600 km2 and comprises a variety of agro-ecological
zones. Western governments, the European Union (EU), the World Bank, FAO, humanitarian
agencies and private and for-profit organizations are assisting the Government
of Azerbaijan in the development of rural areas, not only to ease food insecurity,
but also to counterbalance the booming oil industry which is dominated by foreign
enterprises and international interests. Agricultural and rural development
may reverse the migration from rural regions to urban centres where unemployment
rates are growing and civil unrest is anticipated. Despite this support, the
transition proceeds slowly (Sampath and Janakiram, 1996). Far-reaching legislative
changes are necessary to enhance agricultural reform.
The agricultural sector in Azerbaijan shares many transition problems with other
countries in the Caucasian region (Beeler, 1999; Poussard, 1999). With the collapse
of the Soviet Union, previous markets and financial sources have dried up, infrastructure
has broken down and productivity has declined. Moreover, the loss of the province
of Nagorny-Karabagh to neighbouring Armenia has reduced national wheat, tobacco,
cotton, vegetables and livestock husbandry production by about 15 percent. Azerbaijan
currently depends on imports for its food security.
Since 1997, the authors have been involved in long-, medium- and short-term
assignments to assist the agrarian reform process for agricultural development
and to improve the living conditions of internally displaced persons, refugees
and local farmers. Alongside their extension activities, a key component of
the authors' work in Azerbaijan has been the establishment of information and
advisory centres and the training of extension staff at all levels. This article
contains information collected by the authors during their assignments and from
the literature on the subject.
Under the former Soviet system, agricultural production was organized in large,
heavily mechanized state and cooperative farms (983 kolchoz and 820 sovchoz)
complemented by private, small-scale, non-mechanized production for home consumption.
The large farms were specialized according to specific products or units. Input
supplies and marketing activities were organized externally, and important managerial
decisions on farming strategies were taken off-farm.
After independence, Azerbaijan inherited a diversified agrarian sector and a
large, educated workforce (Sampath and Janakiram, 1996). The country's diverse
geographic and agroclimatic conditions offer favourable natural growing conditions
for agriculture, when irrigation is available. Approximately 4.3 million ha
of wheat, barley and alfalfa are currently cropped, mainly for home consumption
and livestock rearing. Cotton, vegetables, fruit, grapes, tobacco and other
labour-intensive crops are grown as cash crops for marketing. Agricultural output
fell by 50 percent between 1992 and 1994, by which date the overall contribution
of agriculture to exports had declined to 10 percent. Agricultural production
increased in the second half of the 1990s, but has not yet returned to its 1980s
levels (Tables 1 and 2).
Dissatisfaction with the current situation is the major driving force to re-establishment
of agricultural capacity. One promising avenue is the development of a private
agricultural sector. In the first Azeri Land Reform Law of August 1996, part
of the state and cooperative land was privatized. Only the state and cooperative
farms received any share of collective assets, land, equipment, livestock and
capital. By 1999, 2.8 million people had received 1.1 million ha, about 70 percent
of the total area that was planned to be privatized. The average size of a private
farming enterprise is between 1 and 5 ha.
Immediately after privatization, the new landowners followed their accustomed
production patterns, until they realized that they were achieving unexpectedly
low returns and that there is a pressing need for costly mechanized equipment.
In addition, most landowners face a number of problems such as scarcity of land,
highly eroded and saline soils and limited access to credit and farm inputs
(improved seeds, fertilizers and pesticides). Other constraints include insufficient
supply of appropriate farm equipment, limited access to markets and a lack of
customer purchasing power.
| TABLE 1 CHANGES IN THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION STRUCTURE OF AZERBAIJAN, 1980-1997 |
|||||||||
|
Product |
Planted area ('000 ha) |
Yield (tonnes/ha) |
Production ('000 tonnes) |
||||||
|
1980 |
1997 |
1997 as % of 1980 planted areas |
1980 |
1997 |
1997 as % of 1980 yields |
1980 |
1997 |
1997 as % of 1980 yields |
|
|
Wheat |
490.6 |
647.7 |
132.0 |
2.32 |
1.74 |
75.1 |
1 136.5 |
1 127.1 |
99.2 |
|
Cotton |
249.6 |
205.3 |
82.3 |
3.54 |
0.61 |
17.2 |
883.4 |
124.6 |
14.1 |
|
Tobacco |
17.2 |
7.9 |
45.9 |
3.32 |
1.91 |
57.5 |
57.0 |
15.1 |
26.5 |
|
Potatoes |
19.7 |
27.0 |
137.0 |
8.70 |
8.27 |
95.1 |
172.1 |
223.4 |
129.8 |
|
Vegetables |
38.8 |
27.2 |
70.1 |
21.24 |
18.21 |
85.7 |
824.2 |
495.4 |
60.1 |
|
Fruits |
141.3 |
88.3 |
62.5 |
1.97 |
3.74 |
189.8 |
278.1 |
330.9 |
118.9 |
|
Grapes |
263.0 |
66.3 |
25.2 |
5.63 |
2.22 |
29.4 |
1 481.3 |
145.3 |
9.8 |
|
Tea |
10.3 |
7.3 |
70.8 |
2.11 |
0.21 |
9.9 |
21.8 |
1.6 |
7.3 |
Source: Ministry of Agriculture.
| TABLE 2 CHANGES IN THE ANIMAL PRODUCTION STRUCTURE OF AZERBAIJAN, 1980-1997 |
|||
|
Product |
1980 |
1997 |
1997 as % of 1980 yields |
|
Meat ('000 tonnes) |
227.1 |
160.0 |
70.5 |
|
Milk ('000 tonnes) |
796.1 |
881.5 |
110.7 |
|
Wool ('000 tonnes) |
10.7 |
9.6 |
89.7 |
|
Eggs (millions) |
721.2 |
492.4 |
68.2 |
|
Cattle ('000s) |
1 806.2 |
1 843.5 |
102.1 |
|
Cows and buffaloes ('000s) |
675.8 |
861.6 |
127.5 |
|
Sheep and goats ('000s) |
5 361.6 |
5 267.0 |
98.2 |
|
Pigs ('000s) |
183.1 |
21.0 |
11.5 |
Source: Ministry of Agriculture.
A chronic hindrance to agricultural development is that only a minority of
the new landowners possess genuine farming experience. As the majority used
to work in other professions, they lack knowledge and skills in management and
agriculture. At the same time, those with farming experience from the state
and cooperative farms have little experience of decision-making and farm planning.
To most farmers, marketing means that good-quality produce is destined for home
consumption, while lower-quality produce is sold at local markets. The positive
aspect of this is that farmers are proud to be independent and have quickly
developed their own visions and opinions of when and how to crop and when and
where to invest. Within a few years, the farming population has developed into
heterogeneous groups with information, training and advisory needs tailored
to their different situations.
Those organizations involved in the agricultural knowledge and information system
must rise to the challenge. Yet at present, there is little in the way of a
publicly organized and supported infrastructure for dealing with the new farmers'
education needs. There is a World Bank-supported farm privatization and extension
pilot project involving state and collective farms in six different agro-ecological
regions, but this is limited in reach. Furthermore, universities and research
institutes only occasionally involve themselves in outreach or extension-related
activities. Indeed, current research staff have not yet adapted their ideas,
objectives and approaches to the diversified demands of today's farming population.
The government envisages modernizing the agricultural sector through input-intensive
agriculture and use of the latest technology. National policy is also looking
to develop regional and national structures where private farmers are represented.
It is planned that such farmers' associations should take responsibility for
supplying inputs and for handling, processing and marketing. The government
foresees that agricultural experts will inform new farmers on production, land
and water use. However, given the new farming population's lack of farm management
knowledge, the scarce financial resources and small farm size, as well as the
underdeveloped complementary services for infrastructure maintenance, this vision
seems overambitious. The public administration is gradually realizing that,
in the present context, its expectations are far too high.
|
TABLE 3 |
||||
|
Service delivery |
||||
|
Public |
Private non-profit |
Private for-profit |
||
| Financing source |
Public |
Tax revenues used for direct public delivery |
Public contributions used to purchase the services of non-profit advisers |
General revenues used to purchase the services of private agents |
|
Private |
User fees paid for private use of public agents |
User fees paid for non-profit advisers |
Private payments to private agents |
|
Source: Adapted from Kidd et al. 2000
The challenge of and opportunities for developing a training and advisory network
in the country are enormous. International experience demonstrates that no single
extension approach warrants universal use and that different forms and degrees
of interaction between the public and private sectors are possible (Kidd et
al., 2000). Table 3 shows the wide range of arrangements between the extremes
of being fully financed and delivered by the state and being delivered by the
private sector (for-profit and non-profit) and paid for by users.
A great many Azerbaijanis have become private farmers, a role for which their
previous work experience has given them little preparation. In general, initially
they require extremely basic education and training on both the technical and
management aspects of running a farm enterprise. Currently, the situation of
farmers is becoming more diverse and there is a growing need for client-oriented
advisory services that "help people through a systematic use of communication
to solve their problems as partners both contributing their own knowledge and
capabilities" (Albrecht, 1995).
Furthermore, experiences from all over the world show that it is essential to
consider the following issues when planning an advisory system (Hoffmann, Kidd
and Lamers, 2000; Kidd et al., 2000):
These basic principles of a client-centred understanding of advisory processes formed the starting point for developing an agricultural training and advisory service programme. Finding ways and means of bringing rhetoric and reality together is the major challenge in developing a vision for agricultural training and advisory services in the specific context of Azerbaijan. The programme and lessons learned from its implementation are outlined in the rest of this article.
In the absence of a nationally defined agricultural training and advisory concept,
two German organizations developed a vision for agricultural extension at a
regional level. In order to increase the sustainability of interventions at
the grassroots level, one of the key components of the programme involved support
for the development of a national non-governmental organization (NGO) that would
train advisers.
The large number of former agriculture specialists formed the core group of
potential candidates for advisory work. However, few specialists had received
any previous training in extension approaches and methods, so potential candidates
were carefully screened. Creating awareness of the new activity of extension
is as crucial as training and coaching on the job are. To encourage good performance,
the national NGO employs screened candidates for a limited period only and focuses
on training and coaching. Trainees need this period to establish good relationships
with their clients and to ensure that the latter will be willing to employ them
or pay them a fee later on when they are no longer contracted by the national
NGO.
The strategy implemented by the NGO Diakonie Emergency Aid's programme to support
the development of a cadre of private advisers is summarized in Table 4. This
programme aimed at increasing the availability of competent advisers to farmers.
However, as Kidd et al. (2000) argue, it is important that farmers be
given opportunities for obtaining the advice and information they seek from
the advisers most able and willing to do so ("the quality objective").
Careful selection and intensive training form a solid foundation for the realization
of this prime initial objective. In addition, a decentralized, client-oriented
advisory service offered by individual private agents would make advisers directly
accountable to clients ("the accountability objective").
The task for training and advisory services is becoming increasingly complex
as advisers need to know more than ever before. Selection, awareness creation
and training are therefore important considerations for achieving quality. On
the basis of locally developed criteria, an initial selection is made from among
former agricultural experts. The criteria used include level of education, work
experience (ideally broad and encompassing different functions), reputation,
age (between 25 and 45 years), gender and profession (professions other than
agronomist are considered). Part-time farmers are also considered, and further
selection criteria are based on the number of farmers in the vicinity and the
regional potential for agriculture and marketing.
The selected candidates follow a well-balanced mix of classroom exercises and
field training to assess their potential. However, training focused exclusively
on agrotechnical issues (as propagated by the government), is a second-best
solution. Potential advisers must first learn to think and act in terms of farming
systems and enterprises rather than activities (irrigation and ploughing), crops
(only wheat or cotton) or livestock (only sheep, goats or cattle) as they used
to. Their technical ways of thinking need to be complemented by effective communication
(listening is key) and social skills (keeping the farmer and the farm family
at the centre of attention). Good communication skills are essential if farmers'
attitudes of dependency on external agents and (principally financial) help
are to be broken (Poussard, 1999).
| TABLE 4 STRATEGIC STEPS FOR MOBILIZATION OF VILLAGE-BASED FIELD STAFF |
|||
|
Step |
What |
How |
Who |
|
1 |
Identification and listing of candidates |
Intensive discussions with key resource persons in communities |
National NGO field and supervising staff, farmers and local authorities |
|
2 |
Recruitment of extension field staff candidates |
Identification of selection criteria; CV collection and analysis; group meetings |
National NGO staff with the assistance of foreign experts |
|
3 |
Training of extension field staff candidates |
Classroom training; field/practical training; field coaching and video; exchange of information among colleagues; selection of candidates |
National NGO staff with the assistance of foreign experts; farmer/clients gradually involved |
|
4 |
Mobilization |
Practical work according to contracts and assignments; coaching and additional on-the-job training |
National NGO staff with the assistance of foreign experts |
|
5 |
Final selection |
Evaluation of fieldwork |
National NGO field staff; farmer/clients; extension candidates |
|
6 |
Completion of training |
Classroom training; field/practical training; field coaching and video; exchange of information among colleagues; certificate and registration |
National NGO field staff; farmer/clients; local administration |
|
7 |
Identification of new candidates |
Intensive discussions with key resource persons in communities |
National NGO field and supervising staff; farmers; local administration |
|
8 |
Independence of extension agents |
Establishment of village offices; contracts with farmers' groups |
National NGO field staff (backstopping); farmer/clients; local administration |
Following the initial training, trainers grade participants according to their
understanding, participation, implementation and technical knowledge regarding
agriculture. Trainees with high potential are contracted for a probation period
of one to three months. During this period, experienced local coaches from supporting
agencies and the local NGO ensure further training in advisory and training
skills and work organization. Conducting problem analysis and elaborating appropriate
extension aid materials are important aspects of "on-the-job" training.
Such extension tools as a joint situation analysis using the strengths-weaknesses-aims-problems
(SWAP) technique, seasonal calendars, pair-wise comparisons and other rapid
and participatory rural appraisal components have been adapted to the situation
in Azerbaijan. However, experience has shown that only some tools are suitable
for local use. Materials for training and extension methods have been translated
into Azeri and Russian to assist support advisers and their coaches.
After a period of implementation and practice of lessons learned from previous
training, the following training cycle builds on knowledge gained from the coaching
phase. This is followed by another coaching period leading into a further cycle
of training, implementation and coaching. The iterative nature of the training
process, interspersed with field-based coaching, is a key quality-enhancing
element of the programme. To keep pace with rapidly changing farming systems
and technical developments, advisers' technical expertise is frequently updated
during training. The latest technical information on horticulture and agriculture
has been compiled, adapted and translated into Azeri.
After the probationary period, the work of potential advisers is evaluated
by both support staff and the clients they have sought to serve. The best candidates
receive new contracts and further training in order to respond to growing demands,
such as that for organic produce. Advisers are trained to build their work on
principles of self-help and the use of locally available resources. Low-external
input agriculture and indigenous knowledge obtained during previous small-scale
activities for home consumption are gradually growing in importance because
chemical inputs are not always available or, more often, farmers cannot afford
them. Some more experienced farmers experiment with available resources and
seek information and inputs - on seeds and production techniques, for example
- from neighbouring regions. Consequently, advisers are familiarized with the
creation of knowledge resources networks made up of knowledgeable farmers, scientists,
laboratories, private companies or traders.
This puts advisers in a situation where they can both facilitate links among
various actors in the agricultural sector and provide technical assistance.
Experience has shown that a good adviser in Azerbaijan needs to do all three
of the "paradigmatic" types of extension - transfer of technology,
advisory work and facilitation - that Roeling and Groot (1998) suggest present
competing alternatives. There is a need to move from rhetoric to reality, but
this clearly needs to be done in a manner that is flexible and sensitive to
the local situation that clients are faced with.
During a 12- to 18-month period of intensive training and learning-by-doing,
the education of the advisers is completed and they may continue working independently.
The length of the training period gives them time to convince their present
clientele that they can meet expectations, and thus develop client loyalty.
The national NGO plans to identify new candidates in order to restart the programme,
and is looking to send new trainees to former trainees for practical on-the-job
training.
Experience indicates that the implementation of any extension concept demands
a legal, organizational and managerial framework (Hoffmann, Kidd and Lamers,
2000). Although there is a need for financial sustainability, cost and funding
problems should not prevent training and advisory services from being available
to the more vulnerable groups. On the other hand, free or heavily subsidized
extension services constrain competition and are counterproductive as far as
private goods are concerned.
Alternative mechanisms for financing delivery are being considered (Figure).
At present, the accountability mechanisms that are available to farmers operate
only indirectly through their voice in the national NGO. During the transition
period, the increased availability of market accountability mechanisms further
empowers farmers, increasing the support of sustainable quality assurance. For
example, after completing training, village-based advisers may be reimbursed
directly by their clients, who can choose another adviser when one does not
perform to their satisfaction. This avoids the dilemma of reimbursing national
NGOs (which are often considered to be new "parastatal" structures).
While it is likely that some individual advisers will become financially independent,
it is less likely that the national NGO will achieve financial sustainability
by depending on direct contributions from farmers. Initial experience shows
that it is more realistic to plan for additional income-generating sources for
national NGOs by broadening the client base. The national NGO could sell extension
aid materials to private advisers, organize demand-driven training courses for
them and conduct quality control and coaching activities. They may also offer
highly specialized services to farmers, such as tax consulting, assistance in
the preparation of business plans and requests for credit. In the long term,
government recognition of the national NGO may lead to public financial support
to ensure financial sustainability.
The decentralized approach described in this article has many advantages in
comparison with a centralized extension structure. The independent, village-based
advisers are highly flexible and aware of prevailing problems, which they also
face on their own farms. In addition, transport and travel costs are minimal.
The historically strong social networks in which farmers, their families and
advisers are embedded are favourable framework conditions for an extension approach
based on concepts of self-help, participation and the use of resources that
are available locally. However, participatory extension approaches must overcome
the command-control relationship that prevailed under the Soviet system. Advisory
work at the grassroots level is vital and one aim must be to establish cooperation
between farmers and extension agents that is characterized by mutual respect
and a positive attitude (Poussard, 1999).
As most landowners are new to farming, much basic agricultural education and
training is requested from the advisers. This, together with the low ratio of
advisers to farmers, often makes group extension methods more appropriate than
individual advisory ones, at least at the outset. Attention is paid to ensuring
that new advisers do not use group meetings as an opportunity to pass on purely
technical information. Advisers should support the formation of farmers' groups,
where farmers or households with similar needs and problems regularly exchange
information. Initial experiences with group extension methods such as group
meetings, discussions, demonstrations and field days have been successful. However,
these methods demand additional training and preparation, as both advisers and
farmers have to get used to them. The farming population's high levels of formal
education allows the use of technical information leaflets and brochures as
learning support materials.
Advisory work needs long-term planning and intensive collaboration and coordination.
The present support provided by international NGOs to the national NGOs and
farmers is a first step. The extension interventions are in selected districts,
serve a limited number of farmers, often form a component of integrated programmes,
and make extensive use of short-term consultants. The success of establishing
a private advisory system also depends on the support of the civil service.
As elsewhere, the state should follow the principle of subsidiarity (that decision-making
should be made as close as possible to local populations). It should also make
collaboration between and integration of the private and public sectors (ministries,
universities, research institutes) a priority (Kidd et al., 2000).
The priorities of the public sector should be policy formulation and analysis,
quality control and creating favourable legislative measures for farmers, traders
and financiers. Farmers in poor and remote areas and when facing difficult production
conditions find it impossible to buy private advice, especially advice that
will only become profitable in the long term. Government must therefore ensure
that competition in the area of development and technology transfer is not to
the detriment of the users with the fewest resources. The state should follow
the example of other countries and provide some sort of a social safety net
(Cary, 1993).
During the transition period, there is a role for international NGOs in providing
assistance in organization, implementation and evaluation of extension, as well
as financial support. Since privatization takes place at all levels of society,
the state, donors and international lending institutions have to align extension
delivery services with privatization reforms in other areas that were formerly
the sole responsibility of the public administration. These include privatization
of social and municipal services, such as education and health, of agribusiness
and of infrastructure, such as irrigation and markets. All of these areas must
become part of a broader scenario analysis and planning exercise involving all
stakeholders (Kidd et al., 2000).
Satisfying the immense need for agricultural information and advice is a challenge
to all stakeholders involved in agriculture: the democratically elected government
and politicians mandated by the public, intermediaries, traders, processors
and farmers. Appropriate strategies need to be defined locally while taking
into account situation specificity, system flexibility, financial sustainability
and the accountability of the services rendered. The example of a feasible,
client-oriented approach in Azerbaijan is based on the mobilization of former
agricultural specialists into village-based extension staff, through selection,
recruitment, training and coaching. Candidates, who also have their own farms
to manage, are employed on a part-time basis (by a national NGO) and carry out
contract-based assignments. After their paid training periods, they may continue
on their own, becoming directly accountable to their clients.
It is difficult to rebuild the agrarian sector in Azerbaijan in the absence
of greater use of modern inputs, and without the education of farmers it will
be almost impossible. The key to the successful establishment of any type of
service to farmers is the recognition of its need by all stakeholders. Fulfilment
of these key framework conditions will enable the awaited financial and technical
support from abroad to be well invested.
1The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable comments of Andrew D. Kidd, PACTeam.
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