New technologies will undoubtedly facilitate the work of the tree breeder in the future. However, findings in biotechnology can only be capitalized if basic biological information and knowledge are available, and if sound tree improvement programmes are in place. A major constraint in many countries is, presently, the lack of institutions and skilled tree breeders who could help guide research to address identified needs, pinpoint problems which new technlogies can potentially help solve, and analyse, adapt and properly apply resulting scientific findings into practice.
Recent studies have noted that the following techniques, currently in various stages of development, may hold some promise for application in forestry:
· Cryopreservation, in vitro storage. Application - storage of germplasm, maintenance of juvenility, germplasm transport: currently most used in development and storage of somatic embryogenic cultures and clonal lines.· Molecular markers. Isoenzymes, Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs), Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPDs), Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR’s), Expressed Sequence Tags (EST’s), Microsatellites. Application - currently being used for quantification of genetic variation (within and among population variation), identification of quantitative trait loci, and marker-assisted selection, genotype identification, and mating system studies.
· Gametophyte cultures. Application - production and use of haploids; currently some research is underway, but no large-scale application foreseen in the near future.
· Micropropagation. Application - useful tool in breeding and for rapid propagation for research, conservation of high-value reproductive materials; currently somatic embryogenesis, and various forms of organogenesis, are being developed and will likely become important delivery systems for several major plantation species.
· In vitro embryo rescue. Application - production of hybrids; currently being applied mostly in the development of hybrid poplars.
· Genetic engineering (transgenics). Application - genetic transformation of plants for e.g. insect and herbicide resistance, and changing lignin biosynthesis pathways; currently included in research programmes in several of the main commercial species. Transformed plants will likely be subject to long and stringent field trials prior to release.
· Protoplast fusion. Application - production of novel hybrids; currently some research is underway with woody plants, but large-scale application in plantation forestry is not likely in the near future.
(FAO 1994; Haines and Martin 1998; Palmberg-Lerche 1993).
In its 11th Session in September 1999, the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources noted with concern the trend over the past years towards increased attention to the development and use of molecular methods at the direct expense of attention and investment in tree breeding, which points to lack of acknowledgement of the fact that these are not alternatives (FAO 1999k, 2000c). Present debate often misleadingly publicises the potential of single gene effects and transgenic technologies, with the underlying assumption that “genes for growth”, “genes for tree form”, or “genes for overall adaptation to harsh environments” can be found; such assumptions grossly under-estimate the compexity of genetic systems and of physiological processes. Namkoong has noted (pers.comm) that the present stress on molecular biology reflects “a mechanical image of the world” and that it erroneously implies that, “changing pieces around and putting them together again will make a revolutionizing difference”.
During the months of April to June 2000, FAO in collaboration with other partners organized an Electronic Forum on Biotechnology in Forestry, with special reference to developing countries. The forestry forum formed part of a broader electronic discussion forum on the use of biotechnologies in food and agriculture, These fora were designed to enable a wide range of parties, including governmental and non-governmental organisations, policy makers and the general public, to discuss and exchange views and experiences about specific issues concerning biotechnologies in food and agriculture.
Yanchuk (2000) summarized the outcome of the forestry biotechnology forum as follows:
· Any of the three main fields of biotechnology being used or proposed for use in forestry, i.e. tissue culture, molecular genetics, and genetically modified or transgenic trees (GM trees), must be considered only as additions to already well established genetic resource management programmes for any species, supplementing advanced breeding and conservation activities already in place. They should not be considered replacements for these.· The most controversial and complex technology was related to the development and use of GM trees. Developments in tissue culture and molecular genetics are largely extensions of currently acceptable and well-known practices.
· Ownership issues of information and germplasm derived from biotechnology are more complex now than before, mainly due to the types of investors involved. Social and ethical issues around the use of GM trees, combined with economic implications for investors, create a complicated set of questions for regulatory agencies, governments and industry.
· There is a great need for public awareness and education before these new technologies are accepted and can be used routinely. Most if not all GM trees will be used in high investment plantations, however, there are complex ecological questions that must be carefully analysed in relation to biosafety.
· Due to the long rotation ages of most forest trees species, and the length of time required to adequately field test GM trees, forest managers will have a much larger window of opportunity to evaluate many of the complex biological, economic and social questions being asked in agriculture. FAO’s role in supporting member countries in the field of biotechnology was discussed at the 116th Session of the FAO Council (FAO 1999f). A policy statement on biotechnologies for food and agriculture was released by FAO in December 1999. Additional information on the subject can be found in Annex 4. Box 5, Annex 4 provides some additional bibliographic references in the subject of biotechnologies to those cited in the main text of the paper and listed in the corresponding list of references.
