0074-B1
Syed Mahmood Nasir[1]
There is considerable diversity in the types of forests in Pakistan. They are from the temperate to the dry lands interspersed with riverine forests along the Indus River. The Indian subcontinent is one of the pioneers in having plantation forestry. The forests in the high hills, riverine and the irrigated plantations have been subject to management since the last quarter of the nineteenth century. This paper analyzes the ecosystem manipulation by the application of silvicultural techniques and the effects on the forest biodiversity. It identifies the areas where change is needed; this includes silvicultural systems, wildlife and sustainable forestry. In conclusion, the case for incorporating the concepts of sustainable forestry in the forestry practices in Pakistan is argued.
The major objectives of the forest management practices in Pakistan are based on the sustainable yield of timber and firewood rather than on sustainable forestry. It is also limited to the species that have good commercial value and does not consider the ecosystem as a whole. The contemporary concept of sustainable forestry on the other hand puts emphasis on management of the system as a whole, including forest fauna and microorganisms. The focus of forest management remains to manipulate nature by retaining those species that are preferred by foresters. Commercial interests dictate the choice of species to be to be managed and harvested. In other situations, exotic or non-endemic species are being heavily planted outside their natural zones. The working plans are legal documents that are prepared after two to three years of work. All such plans consider preservation of Biodiversity, climatic issues and the provisions to protect the habitat of fauna. A critical look into these issues reveals that forestry management practices are not employed as constructively as is necessary. The British preserved large tracts of natural primary forest in the shape of reserved forests. Legal cover to this preservation was given under the Forest Act of 1927. The main objective that led the British to take major steps for forest conservation was to supply fuelwood to the newly created railways and to supply timber to the British Empire. Surprisingly, British legislation especially the Forestry Act, 1927 is the main legal instrument that has helped preserve the natural forests. Ironically, this Act is the main target of criticism of environmental NGOs and other decision-makers. However, this Act has helped in retaining a major portion of these forests in almost pristine condition. Management practices were subsequently developed to conserve the Phulai Acacia modesta and Kau Olea ferrugnea forests. The only change post-independence foresters made was planting of exotic species like eucalyptus
Though Pakistan is a member of intergovernmental panels like the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests; it has not been able to attend its meetings due to financial constraints and other priorities. Therefore, the implementation of international obligations and decisions do not find place in forest policies. A brief overview of the management of various forest types keeping in view the various articles of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and related conventions is discussed below.
The primary natural forests were subject to management under various silvicultural systems, including the selection and shelter wood system. The selection system has been applied to all conifer forests, except Chir pine, where the shelter wood system was applied. Consequently, modified normal forests were created. The rotation period was reduced as the demand for timber increased. The condition of the forests began to deteriorate in the end of the 20th century. These forests were managed with the objective of having regular yields of commercially valuable species like Chir Pine (Pinus roxburgii), Blue Pine, Deodar (Cedrus deodara). While the broad-leafed species like the oaks (Quercus incana and Q. dilatata) and Maple (Acer caseum) were ignored. Resultantly the local population utilised the oaks for fuel. The variety of species raised in our nurseries is a very narrow band.
The history of the management plans of riverine forests goes back almost 50 years. These plans are designed to convert the primary obhan (Populus euphratica) forest into irrigated plantations of shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) and mulberry (Morus alba). Neither the need of the local people, nor the habitat and foraging requirements of the wild animals that were dependent on these riverine ecosystems were considered in these management plans. Initial, success was achieved in raising valuable shisham and kiker (Acacia nilotica), but this system demands expensive input like weeding and irrigation. Huge development works such as engineering structures for flood control and water reservoirs were constructed. Therefore, these riverine forests are not receiving the vital flushing floods necessary to sustain the forests. Installing diesel-operated pumps was considered a solution as opposed to bringing the management plans in harmony with nature and the demands of the local peoples. This artificial irrigation technique is not giving the desired results. Particular example is that of Ghazi Ghat Forest near the famous Ghazi Ghat Bridge (district Dera Ghazi Khan- Southern Punjab). Foresters have not come up with any viable technique to regenerate shisham after the felling of the mature crop in areas that no longer receive floodwater. Irrigation engineers have blocked the creeks of the mighty Indus and not a single drop of floodwater now reaches this forest. A similar situation exists in almost all the riverine forests in the country. Obhan was the traditional tree of the primary riverine system in Pakistan. This is of tremendous economic value to traditional artisans. The lacquered traditional furniture made of obhan not only has local market value, but also has export potential.
The scrub forests are located along elevations that range from 560 to 1800 feet above sea level. The scrub forests especially those of the Salt Range and Rawalpindi had been managed as watersheds and providers of grazing and firewood to the locals. However, commercial exploitation of firewood was a regular feature until the eighties, but the deteriorated condition of the forests led subsequent working plans to abandon all fellings. The first Forest settlements were made at the start of the twentieth century. Reserve. Protected and communal forests were declared, which exist after a century of management. The communal and private forests were not subject to any management. Resultantly these have deteriorated; the vegetative cover is almost non-existent and soil erosion is tremendous. The reserves however are in good condition.
Minerals like coal, bentonite, fire clay and silica sand are abundantly available in the forest reserves. These forests are now under threat from mining. No definite legal cover is available to minimise the impacts from mining. Another threat is fragmentation due to the large-scale construction of roads. Some strategies should be developed to deal with these issues. The rights of grazing and grass cutting also need to be rationalised. This is due to the increase in the human and livestock populations. These forests are damaged by the livestock of the local residents as well as the Bakarwals[3], the regular winter visitors with their large goatherds. These goats browse on Acacia and Kau and are the single largest threat to them. The Forest Department traditionally used to issue grazing permits to the Bakarwals on a heavy fee. A ban on their entry in the districts having scrub forests has been imposed since the late 1980s. Yet, the Forest Department has no control on their entry in the private lands adjoining the state forests. Nevertheless, they find ways to enter the districts and ultimately the forests. A rational strategy needs to be developed in consultation with these grazers to meet their requirements as well as the objectives of forest conservation.
The British rulers raised the original irrigated plantations in the 19th century with the objective of producing fuel for the railways and the steamships sailing the Indus River. After independence, large tracts of land were set aside for plantations in the arid areas. These plantations were raised alongside the development of new barrages and dams. It appears that the purpose of the authorities setting aside these lands was the creation of windbreaks and lowering the subsoil water table. Plantations raised (especially in the Thal area) were a replication of the techniques developed by the British for the initial plantations meant for the supply of wood to the railways. Initially, good results were obtained when the agricultural lands were not developed and abundant water was available for the plantations. The dilemma is that adequate water is no more available. Moreover, in areas where water logging starts, the plantation trees are the first to die. Shorkot Plantation is a classic example of this. However, biological reclamation has become possible by the introduction of eucalyptus. The role of the irrigated plantations for carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation and commercial purposes needs to be ascertained. Strategies need to be developed for the irrigated plantations to meet the emerging challenges of the 21st century. Irrigated plantations can play a big role in biodiversity conservation by meeting the demands for timber and firewood; thus protecting fragile and threatened ecosystems.
Good linear plantations were raised, especially in the post-independence period, alongside roads, railway tracks and canals. The objectives of these plantations were amenity, the creation of shelterbelts, and sand dune stabilisation. Therefore, no period of crop rotation was fixed. All dead and dry trees are harvested. Trees are also harvested when there is a road or canal expansion project. There are still many old growth trees, which we the foresters term as mature and over mature crop. In every forest division, the emphasis is on removal of the old, dead and dry trees. Old trees are now almost non-existent in the country. This is due to shorter rotation periods in the irrigated plantations and the high prices of timber that lure farmers to sell trees earlier. Many birds roost and nest in the old, dead and dry trees, especially in the canal sides. Birds that have not adapted to urbanisation are likely to become extinct. Due to scarcity of land, the linear plantations provide an ideal site to plant local species. There is a need to promote activities that can provide livelihoods to the local people without cutting of these trees.
Wildlife is an integral part of the forest ecosystem. While managing the forestland, administrative considerations have prevailed over the ecosystem approach in Pakistan. Consequently, the Wildlife Department has been separated from the Forest Department in the provinces of Punjab, North Western Frontier Province (NWFP), Sindh and Azad Kashmir. While in Balochistan and the Northern Areas these are managed by a wildlife wing under the respective Forest Departments. This division appears to have isolated the tree from the life dependent on it. All the management plans for the forestry sector are prepared without considering the wildlife management priorities. Even the staff of the Forestry and the Wildlife departments has no common formal forum despite working in the same forests. There are no instructions for the habitat requirements of the fauna in the management plans. The activities of both the departments should be synchronised. The immediate requirement is to retain some percentage of dead, dry and fallen trees in the forests. Retention of some old and hollow trees is also necessary to eliminate the chances of the extinction of birds that fail to adapt to the intensification of agriculture and forestry practices. Nevertheless, the actual situation is that sale of dead and dry trees are the top priority of the forest departments. The driving force is to earn revenues for the respective provincial exchequers.
There is an emphasis in our wildlife legislation on game management. Non-game species that are equally important are totally ignored, such as anteaters and some reptiles that are killed due to mere superstition. There is a need to develop strategies to conserve all forms of life.
There is need to develop a strategy aiming at sustainable forestry development by adopting holistic and integrated resource management principles. Modes of active community participation are also needed to be developed. This will require a change in the role of the managers, the active participation of communities and other stakeholders; capacity building; and the sharing of benefits on an equitable basis. Sustainable forest development also demands consistent policies and strategies for achieving both short and long-term goals, in addition to a clear-cut vision, and strong political will to realise the objectives of the policies in true spirit. Decentralisation and devolution also play a crucial role in sustainable forest management. In some provinces, the Forest Department has already started these processes, but donor assistance plays a major role in this process. It is not clear that these activities will continue once donor support is discontinued.
Indicators are ways to measure or establish criteria by providing a common framework for describing, monitoring, and evaluating progress towards sustainable forest management. This concept is a relatively new initiative in sustainable forest management, and is considered a very useful tool for adjusting forest policy and adopting other measures to sustain forestry.
In Pakistan, the process of identification and adoption of criteria and indicators has not yet started. The initiation of this process is crucial due to the changes in socio-economic cultural and other related factors.
| [1] Deputy Inspector General
of Forests, Ministry of Environment, Islamabad, Pakistan. Email: [email protected] [2] Based on field experiences in the Punjab [3] Transhumance tribe that keeps mainly hairy goats and descend to the low hills in winter for grazing |