0329-C1
Ron Smith, Tom Beckley, Stewart Cameron and Ramsay Hart 1
This paper describes two partnerships that were formed in order to proactively and voluntarily create a sustainable management framework for a rapidly developing high-value non-timber forest product (NTFP) - ground hemlock or eastern yew (Taxus canadensis). Industry, government regulatory bodies, academics, government research scientists and a community-based non-governmental organization are working together to ensure sustainable management of the resource. Sustainable harvest guidelines have been developed and are being utilized on a voluntary basis. The importance of communicating results from current research and development-related activities associated with these partnerships is also emphasized. The challenges and opportunities in building multi-stakeholder partnerships that focus on developing and sustaining rural communities are also discussed.
For over two decades, many Anorthern@ activists have campaigned against the rampant destruction of tropical rainforests in Asouthern@ countries. Their arguments involved, in part, warnings that reduction of biodiversity could foreclose options regarding potentially useful, but as yet undiscovered biological compounds. More precisely, they often claimed that Athe cure for cancer@ might exist in some rainforest organism, and therefore any species extinction might result in the potential loss of a valuable biological resource.
Paclitaxel, also called Taxol_, is a well-established cancer drug that has been sold by Bristol Meyers Squibb (BMS) for clinical use since 1992, and has been called the largest selling anti-cancer drug in the world (Goodman and Walsh 2001). Taxol_ and the closely related taxane Taxotere_ (docetaxel, produced by Aventis) had sales in 2001 of $2.3 billion USD (Anonymous 2002). In fact, paclitaxel has now been demonstrated to have beneficial effects against more than 20 forms of cancers and other diseases and the list of diseases for which it produces results against is growing. Ironically, plants that produce Taxol are not limited to remote jungles in the developing world, but rather are found literally in the back yards and woodlots in some of the most densely populated regions of North America.
Harvesting of yew species to extract taxanes (of which paclitaxel is but one) from bark, needles and small twigs of yew species commenced approximately 12 years ago. The initial source of paclitaxel was the bark of the tree Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia). However, as with many naturally derived products, harvesting in the wild quickly exceeded levels that could be deemed sustainable. During this relatively short period of time, uncontrolled and unregulated harvesting has resulted in serious over-harvesting of wild populations of most yew species worldwide; including the Pacific yew in western North America as well as native yew species throughout Europe and Asia. Harvesting of ground hemlock (Taxus canadensis) has recently begun, and the demand for biomass is escalating at what might be considered to be an alarming rate. With ground hemlock representing what is likely the worlds= last yet untapped source of yew biomass, harvesters, drug manufacturers, and governments in eastern Canada need to take immediate steps to ensure that this resource does not become depleted in a manner similar to what has been observed for all other >wild= yew harvest programs to-date.
For any naturally-occurring crop, over-utilization can be minimized in two ways: (1) by developing biologically sound protocols to ensure that harvesting from natural stands is ecologically sustainable, and (2) by maximizing product yield through >domestication=; the conversion of a naturally-occurring species to a commercially-reared crop with the goals of increasing the harvestable biomass and its quality, and stabilizing (or increasing) the long-term supply.
Historically, both in North America and indeed much of the western world, a >large-scale= approach to economic development of natural resources has been adopted, including that of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). That is, the focus is typically on continually increasing the efficiency of harvest programs for the commodity of concern. Although the quality of the supply is important, it often takes second-place to quantity. Conversely, small-scale approaches to managing natural resources have generally proven more successful and effective with respect to developing and sustaining rural communities. One of the key elements to the ground hemlock project is that both are being developed concurrently. The relatively high value of Taxus biomass is somewhat unique in the NTFP arena. None-the-less, many of the elements from the approach taken with ground hemlock can be applied to other NTFPs.
This paper describes two partnerships that were formed to pro-actively and voluntarily create a sustainable management framework for a fledgling ground hemlock industry and the challenges associated with balancing economic development with sustaining rural communities.
In 1997, scientists at the Canadian Forest Service (CFS), Atlantic Forestry Centre in Fredericton, New Brunswick Canada, initiated a research program focusing on both the conservation of ground hemlock and on collaborating with the private sector to develop a >domestication= program following a traditional >tree improvement= model. The research project on domestication was designed to improve taxane yield through research in five interdependent yet complementary areas a) cultivar selection, b) nursery propagation with rooted cuttings, c) intensive nursery culture, d) tissue culture, and e) methods to increase taxane yields.
Cultivated crops can be a more expensive source of biomass when compared to harvesting wild foliage. This typically occurs when there is no, or only a nominal, >stumpage fee= e.g., the cost per unit weight to access the material. The current >stumpage= fees range from $0.10 to $0.25 Cdn. per kilogram. Given the fledgling state of ground hemlock harvesting programs coupled with the reality that this wild biomass must be competitive in the current market, this >modest= stumpage fee is probably reasonable.
Although one of the a main objectives of this research program is to create a new >crop= using ground hemlock, a second and equally important goal is to not completely replace the wild harvest. Researchers at CFS were instrumental in the development of sustainable harvest guidelines for ground hemlock, co-producing the first set of harvest guidelines with the government of Prince Edward Island (PEI) (Smith and Glen 2000). In addition to environmental concerns, these guidelines were required from an economic perspective. Over the next 5 to 10 years, most of the value for rural communities e.g., harvesters and landowners, will be derived from ground hemlock harvested from the forest. Landowners may clearly reap some economic benefit from owning land stocked with ground hemlock. Furthermore, workers may earn between $100.00 and $240.00 per day depending upon site conditions, distance to roads, etc.. While this is seasonal work, it represents a good wage compared to other economic opportunities in many rural areas of eastern Canada where unemployment rates are often in double digits.
The knowledge regarding ground hemlock has been growing steadily since 1997, but certainly not as quickly as demand for the product. Initially funded exclusively by the CFS, as the research progressed, the various partners and collaborators, from whom, >help= was initially solicited, began taking an increasingly enthusiastic and more pro-active interest in this program. The majority of those involved, recognized the potential social and economic benefits that could be derived. Similarly, while there are many aspects of the biology of ground hemlock that need more research, the importance of putting existing information in the hands of harvesters, landowners, government regulatory bodies, and the general public was also recognized.
In 2000, recognizing these research and extension needs, representatives from three institutions decided to work together in order to create and disseminate new knowledge regarding three NTFPs, of which, ground hemlock was one. The three institutions that formed this partnership were the CFS, Falls Brook Centre, and the University of New Brunswick (UNB).
The CFS, part of the Department of Natural Resources Canada, is the primary organization responsible for forestry matters within the federal government. It provides national leadership in research and development and is responsible for the development, coordination, and implementation of federal policies and programs to enhance long-term economic, social, and environmental benefits to Canadians.
The Falls Brook Centre is a not-for-profit sustainable community demonstration and training centre in rural New Brunswick. Located on 400 acres of Acadian forest and farmland, Falls Brook Centre strives to promote exemplary sustainable practices in both forestry and agriculture through organic gardens, orchards, forest trails and promotion of ecological certification. On-site activities include solar and wind energy systems, a small conference centre, herbariums, tree nurseries, non-timber forest product plantings i.e., mushrooms, ginseng, and ground hemlock. The Falls Brook Centre was the community applicant to a Canadian Rural Partnership grant that has provided funding for the first joint research project implemented by this partnership.
The third partner is a rural sociologist from the Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management at the University of New Brunswick. His interest is in studying the development of NTFPs, and more specifically, the rapidly growing ground hemlock industry. The structure of relationships between social organizations (federal and provincial states, NGOs, large and small industries, etc.) presents an interesting case in sustainable management. Furthermore, because the market structure is just developing for ground hemlock, and given its >high= value, there are several options available for how the industry might be structured, and the potential for enhanced rural development is high i.e., the first two steps in the value-added chain for ground hemlock, drying the biomass and primary extraction, could occur in the rural regions in or near where the biomass is extracted, providing >additional= much-needed jobs and income for people in rural regions of Eastern Canada.
The objectives of the partnership and more specifically, the CRP project are to:
The work of the Research Partnership on NTFPs is relatively focused. While it covers a range of issues from social to genetic, its mandate is primarily to produce and disseminate information. Formed in 2002, the mandate of the Eastern Canada Ground Hemlock Working Group (ECGHWG) is somewhat different. This partnership includes the three partners listed above (UNB, CFS and FBC), but it also includes representatives of government agencies and harvesters themselves. Interestingly, two very different types of government agencies are involved; business development departments (such as Business New Brunswick) and regulatory agencies (New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources and Energy, Prince Edward Island Agriculture and Forestry, and Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources) and Environment Canada (in Canada, the Department responsible for administering the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)).
In order to achieve sustainability, it is critical that the harvesters actively participate in the process of developing and administering guidelines. The structure of the industry is such that a small number of companies already control a majority of the harvest for the species, and most of these large players are around the table. The first task of the Working Group has been to agree to a Statement of Principles for the Sustainable Management of Ground Hemlock. Adherence to the principles and membership in the Working Group are totally voluntary. The Working Group has no regulatory authority, but the hope is that a non-regulatory sustainable management system can be devised so that a more traditional command and control regulatory regime may not be necessary. Governments in eastern Canada, have been experiencing fiscal crises in recent years, with the result that many departments have been downsized. In most provinces, even if a regulatory system were developed, it would be very difficult to enforce. There simply would not be the manpower to check legal or illegal harvest sites.
First drafted by staff at FBC, the >Principles for the Sustainable Management of Ground Hemlock= are in draft form and the ECGHWG is in the process of discussing and revising them. The Principles extend well beyond the basic biology around harvesting and regeneration, but also include matters such as the distribution of economic benefits, information and training for the harvesting labor force, monitoring of harvests, and adherence to existing laws and regulations (such as labor laws, international treaties, etc.).
To facilitate the sustainable management of ground hemlock, it is essential that those involved in this emerging resource sector agree to a standard set of guidelines. These guidelines, once fully developed, will serve to provide a fair and effective standard for harvesters. Through a comprehensive verification system, the guidelines will also provide processors, consumers and regulators with the assurance that the resource is being sustainably managed. It is intended that agreement from members of the ECGHWG on the following general principles will facilitate and validate the next step in the process, the identification of specific criteria and indicators.
Working Draft of the Principles:
The principles are >positive and pro-active=, unlike many rules and regulations that are all-too-often worded to emphasize what actions are prohibited. The importance of presenting principles in a positive wording can help bring agreement to parties that otherwise might be at odds e.g., biomass harvesting contractors and environmentalists. Furthermore, determining, at the outset, what the partners have in common, facilitates further dialogue, but more importantly reduces the adversarial atmosphere at meetings in general.
Partnering is not without potential economic benefits as well. In actual fact, the tracking requirements already in place by the pharmaceutical companies that are purchasing ground hemlock for use in the United States, require adherence to stringent guidelines. Specifically, it must be clearly demonstrated that the biomass originates from sustainably managed source(s). However, these regulations only pertain to biomass destined for processing and use in the U.S.(and by default, Canada). Rules are considerably less stringent when the biomass is to be exported. Under those circumstances, there is little to no incentive to follow ecologically sustainable harvest practices. The working group is striving to ensure that ALL biomass that is harvested is done so in an ecologically responsible manner.
The case of ground hemlock in Eastern Canada offers some interesting lessons in sustainable development partnerships for forest management. Two linked, but distinct partnerships have formed to help ensure that the harvest of ground hemlock is sustainable, even as the industry is just developing. Too often, concerns with sustainability come after a resource is already degraded. Ecological restoration at any level is a difficult task. The pro-active approach taken here may well be a model for the development of other non-timber forest products as well as for ground hemlock.
The partnerships described herein are extremely broad. They cut across the private and public sectors and they involve researchers, community groups, large and small firms, and multiple levels of government. Buy-in from all these players is critical to the development of a sustainable management framework. At present, participation in the partnership and adherence to sustainable harvest guidelines are voluntary. Laws in the United States stipulating the use of sustainably harvested biomass are currently a huge driver for the development of this sustainable management framework in Eastern Canada. Without the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) rules we would very likely be witnessing widespread exploitative harvesting on private land and the depletion of open access resources on public land in the region. Finding the right balance between regulatory, voluntary, and market-based (certification) control mechanisms will be the key to sustainability for this and potentially other species.
The use of ground hemlock as a non-timber forest product is at an early implementation phase. Over the coming years, we will find out if the recommended provisions are really appropriate. Yet, it already seems that part of the success resides in a close co-operation between the responsible government authorities, the industry and the suppliers of the raw material.
If done sustainably, a long-term harvesting program for eastern yew could yield significant economic and social benefits to eastern Canada. Two strategies for the eastern yew B limiting woodland harvesting to sustainable levels and domestication of the best plants into a nursery crop B can be used to help meet the ever-increasing demand for Taxol7 within the medical community. Sustainable harvesting can provide long-term seasonal employment in rural communities. Domestication will develop a new crop for large-scale nursery propagation, growth and harvesting. Increased jobs in the nursery industry will result for both smaller businesses and large companies.
Smith, R. and Glen, B. 2000. Guidelines for Harvesting Ground Hemlock Foliage. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, and the PEI Department of Agriculture and Forestry, Fredericton. 2 pp.
Anonymous 2002. Update on spindle poisons B Part I. Taxanes, generic paclitaxel, and novel formulations and analogs. Future Oncology 6: 1422-1455.
Goodman, J. and Walsh V. (2001). The Story of Taxol: Nature and Politics in Pursuit of an Anti-Cancer Drug. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, 282 p.
1 Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Atlantic Forestry Centre, P.O. Box 4000, Fredericton, NB E3B 5P7. [email protected]