0632-C5

Sustainable Forest Management: Global Trends and Opportunities

Jacek P. Siry ¹, Frederick W. Cubbage ², Miyan Rukunuddin Ahmed ³

Abstract

Data are reviewed on the extent of global forests, management, protection, certification, and ownership, as well as implications for sustainable forest management (SFM) under the Montreal Process. According to FAO, as of 2000, the world had 3.9 billion ha of forests with 187 million ha (5%) in forest plantations. Drawing on additional surveys and our research, we estimate that there are about 204 million ha of planted forests as of 2002. Public ownership comprised 87% of the world's total forest area, with the United States having the largest share of privately owned forests and virtually all forest in Africa being publicly owned. About 1.7 billion ha of forests (43%) were reported to be covered by forest management plans, and 477 million ha (12%) were under formal forest protection decrees or laws. However, the degree of management intensity and forest protection actually realized by these reported data is moot. Forest certification includes 121 million ha (3%) of forests, with 93% of the certification occurring in the Northern hemisphere, but most of the deforestation occurring in the Southern hemisphere. The data provide evidence that many countries in the world are trying to achieve sustainable forest management, and certainly are trying to report data that suggest they are moving toward SFM goals. The empirical evidence that forests are actually well managed and protected, however, is often lacking. Enhanced SFM will require better reporting and verification, more areas covered, and enhanced implementation of SFM criteria and indicators in the future.

1. Introduction

Global forest resources are essential for conservation of biological diversity and water and soil resources as well as for meeting our needs for wood and non-wood forest products. World leaders at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992-termed the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro-developed a non-binding Statement of Forest Principles that consisted of 17 points outlining guidelines and means for protecting the world's forests. Since then, countries throughout the world have developed regional and international criteria and indicators that can measure and monitor success in achieving sustainable forest management (SFM).

Of the criteria and indicator initiatives, the Montreal Process is geographically the largest, encompassing most of the world's temperate and boreal forests, and 60% of all of the world's forests (http://www.mpci.org). The broad Montreal criteria encompass: (1) conservation of biological diversity; (2) maintenance of productive capacity of productive ecosystems; (3) maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality; (4) conservation and maintenance of soil and water resources; (5) maintenance of forest contribution to carbon cycles; (6) maintenance and enhancement of long-term socio-economic benefits to meet the needs of societies; and (7) development of legal, institutional, and economic framework for forest conservation and sustainable management. Similar criteria and indicators for measuring and assessing sustainable forest management were developed through the Helsinki Process in Europe. Similar efforts by the International Tropical Timber Organization are designed to enhance SFM in tropical regions.

As a means to assess the status of sustainable forest management in the world, we analyze published and new data on forest area and management; discuss the role of planted forests; review the success of certification and protection efforts, and summarize the distribution of public and private forest ownership. We conclude by assessing progress in efforts promoting sustainable forest management such as stated in the Montreal Process criteria.

2. Global Forest Resources: Status and Trends

2.1 Forest area and types

According to the Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) 2000 (FAO 2001), the total world's forest cover amounts to nearly 3.9 billion ha, with 187 million ha (5%) in forest plantations. Drawing on additional surveys and our research, we estimate that there were about 204 million ha of planted forests by 2002 (Table 1). This is the area on which forests were established on forest and non-forest lands by direct seeding or planting primarily for industrial wood production. In estimating natural and planted forest area as well as the area of fast-grown industrial wood plantations, we used FRA 2000 data as well as other sources, including Kuusela (1994), Hyde et al.(in prep.), Smith et al.(2001), the Temperate and Boreal Forest Resources Assessment (TBFRA) 2000 (UNECE 2000), and our own current timber supply estimates.

Natural forests are forests undisturbed by human management or forests that are managed and utilized but regenerated naturally following their harvest. Natural forest cover was calculated as the difference between the total forest cover and the planted forest cover. The vast majority of forests, approximately 3.7 billion ha or 95% of the total forest cover, are of natural origin.

The estimation of planted forests cover presents a number of challenges. In several countries in temperate and boreal regions, particularly in Europe, it is difficult to distinguish between plantations composed of native species and natural forests. What distinguishes these forests from a typical plantation is a rather long rotation period. We assumed that clearcutting, planting, and industrial wood production conferred a plantation status on forests composed of native species. We estimated that there are about 96 million ha of plantations in Europe. These forests are sometimes called man-made or semi-natural forests, which also applies to intensively managed natural forests. Further, in Japan, China, India, and elsewhere in Asia as well as in Africa and Central America only a fraction of plantations can be considered wholly for wood production purposes because many of them were established for watershed or desertification protection, fuelwood, and various non-wood cash crops, or they were characterized by low success rates. Therefore, we assumed that about half of the total reported forest plantation area in these regions would be devoted to industrial wood production.

We assumed that fast-grown industrial wood plantations included all those grown on industrial, nonindustrial private, or on some public lands that could be used to grow and harvest industrial roundwood for manufacture of forest products. We further assumed that fast-grown industrial wood plantations were based on exotic or native species with growth rates of 5 m³/ha/yr or more, and common rotation lengths of less than 30 years, which would exclude most planted stands in Europe because of very long rotations. We estimate that there are about 72 million ha of fast-grown industrial wood plantations, or nearly 2% of the world's forests. The Southern hemisphere of the world contains the most fast-growing exotic plantations. The faster growth rates for industrial plantations in the Southern hemisphere may average 30 to 40 m³/ha/yr, versus 10 to 15 m³/ha/yr in the Northern hemisphere.

Table 1. Land, Forest, and Population Statistics by Region, 2000

2.2 Forest production

The world's forests produce 1.6 billion m³ of industrial roundwood and 1.8 billion m³ of fuelwood and charcoal annually (FAO 2002). A comparison of harvest and forest inventory data (386 billion m³, FAO 2001) indicates that nearly 1% of the world's total standing volume is harvested annually. Timber is the major market-based forest product and a primary reason for actively managing forests. Timber production in industrialized regions is dominated by industrial roundwood, while in developing regions wood is primarily consumed for energy purposes. FRA 2000 data also indicate that forests provide a wide range of plant and animal products, including fodder, medicines, cosmetics, and utensils. Forests are also increasingly recognized as the source of important environmental benefits, including biodiversity, carbon storage, and watershed protection. Data on non-timber forest products and services are limited throughout much of the world.

2.3 Forest management

Industrial wood plantations represent the minimum area that is actually subject to traditional or modern forest harvesting regulation techniques. Probably much of the other planted stands in the world, many of which are in Europe, are also managed actively and subject to sustained yield timber regulation and management. The 204 million ha of planted stands (5%) are probably the most actively managed forests in the world. The remaining 95% of the world's forests are managed in natural stands, left to grow naturally, or are reserved from wood production entirely.

FRA 2000 defines the area under forest management plan as the area managed for various purposes, such as productive or protective uses, in line with approved national plans covering 5-year periods or more. For developed countries, this category also includes informal management plans. Little is known, however, about more specific management objectives and their achievement. While management plans may help ensure that sustainable practices are applied, in some instances, particularly in developing countries, management plans may be developed only for obtaining access to forests that will be subjected to unsustainable exploitation. Further, FRA management data have to be used cautiously because they do not include a number of developing countries for which data are still missing. In some cases, different definitions and interpretations prevented the development of reliable estimates of managed forest areas.

Overall, FRA 2000 data suggest that about 43% of all forests have some type of management plan (Table 2). This seems to be a substantial share of forests. However, it includes large areas of public forests in Canada and Russia that are covered by management plans but see little if any active management or forests that are entirely set aside for environmental purposes.

2.4 Forest protection

Protected areas include nature preserves, wilderness areas, national parks, natural monuments, protected landscape/seascape, and managed resource protection areas. The objectives for managing protected lands focus on conservation and protection of natural functions, values, and biodiversity. Timber harvests and land clearing for settlement remain a threat in protected areas of many countries. FRA data indicate that about 477 million ha of forests or about 12% of the world's forests are legally protected (Table 2), but the statutory levels of protection surely have different levels of enforcement.

Table 2. Forest Management and Protection Statistics by Region

Forest certification may also indicate a drive towards more sustainable forest management and better forest protection. We collected information on certified forest area from the web sites for each major certification organizations in the world, including American Tree Farm Program (ATFP), Canada's National Sustainable Forest Management System Standard (CSA), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), Pan-European Forest Certification Council (PEFCC), Sustainable Forest Initiative Program (SFI), Malaysian Timber Certification Council (MTCC), and Green Tag (GT). At the end of 2002, about 121 million ha of forests were certified worldwide (Table 2). This area amounts to only 3% of global forest area.

Despite growing conservation efforts, forest decline continues. The current net annual deforestation rate (natural forests loss offset by planted forests gain) is estimated at 9 million ha annually (FAO 2001). The total loss of the world's natural forests, which comprises deforestation and conversion to planted forests, is larger and estimated at about 16 million ha. Most natural forests, 94%, are lost in the tropics. The data also indicate that the pace of deforestation has slowed. Major deforestation causes include growing populations and income resulting in ever increasing demand for wood and land for agriculture and for development. Forest decline has a broader meaning that goes beyond forest land loss and encompasses the decline in quality of existing forests resulting from overexploitation, fragmentation, and human set fires. The extent of this process is largely unknown.

2.5 Forest ownership

The world's forests are owned primarily by governments and other public bodies (Table 3). We used data from TBFRA 2000, White and Martin (2002), and Hyde et al. (in prep.) as well as our own estimates to assess global forest ownership. We compiled forest ownership information for about 85% of global forest area. Overall, about 87% of the forests are in public ownership. Also included in public ownership are tribal and communal forests, which cover about 200 million ha and account for 5% of global forests. These forests represent a transitory ownership group that has characteristics of both public and private ownership.

Table 3. Forest Ownership Statistics by Region

3. Sustainable Management: Challenges and Opportunities

3.1 What is the role of planted forests in achieving sustainable forest management?

Planted forests become increasingly important as they supply about a quarter of global industrial roundwood production and are predicted to account for 50% of global output within two decades (Brown 1998). FRA 2000 data indicate that about 4.5 million ha of forest plantations are established annually. New plantations are better managed, achieve higher growth rates, and produce higher quality wood. High plantation growth rates allow for concentrated wood production on a smaller area and help reduce pressures on remaining natural forests, providing better opportunities for their sustainable management (Sedjo and Botkin 1997). Recent silvicultural advancements indicate that high production rates can be sustained or even increased (Allen 2001). Further, high growth rates make industrial plantations a promising tool in maintaining forest contribution to carbon cycles at times when global forest cover continues to decline. Forest plantations can also be effective in restoring forests on denuded or agricultural lands and in providing a number of environmental and socio-economic benefits.

3.2 Is forest certification applied where it is most needed?

Forest certification is a market based initiative aimed at improving the quality of forest management and promoting higher prices or better market access for wood products derived from sustainably managed forests. While certification was designed primarily for improving tropical forest management, the vast majority of certified forests (93%) are in the North where the quality of forest management is generally satisfactory and forest resources are expanding. The area of certified forests has been increasing rapidly, and this trend is expected to continue into the future. By the end of 2005, an estimated 200 million ha will be certified. This still would amount to a small fraction of global forest area. At the same time, price premiums for certified wood are low and rare, and globally certified wood products represent less than 1% of forest products sales (UNECE 2001). The promise of price premiums may eventually work better for forests managed for industrial wood production, geared to markets in Europe and North America. There is less promise for millions of ha of forests in developing regions used to meet subsistence needs where very few or none resources are available for their management and where forests are most threatened by overexploitation, degradation, or conversion to other uses.

3.3 Does government ownership protect forests?

Since the vast majority of forests are government owned, deforestation and decline also take place primarily in government owned forests. Governments may convert forests to other uses to promote the achievement of social and development goals, which in some cases are justified and increase social welfare. In many situations, governments simply lack resources and expertise to adequately manage their forest resources. Yet in other cases, poor government policies or corruption lead to forest destruction. In situations where governments lack resources and are unable to develop workable approaches to managing their forests, a greater reliance on private or communal property and free markets may be considered. The whole process should amount to more than just a transfer of property rights as it should improve the quality of forest management.

Present outcomes only underlie the importance and need to develop effective legal, institutional and economic framework for forest conservation and sustainable management, which remains a challenge in many countries.

4. Conclusion

The information on global forests presented here makes us cautiously optimistic about the fulfillment of the Montreal Process criteria, although much remains unknown and much remains to be done. Our optimism arises from the recognition by virtually all stakeholders that sustainable forest management is a goal worth pursuing. The global forest area is decreasing, but at a decreasing rate. Planted forests are restoring some areas, especially in abandoned agriculture fields or wastelands. More than 40% of the world's forest area has management plans. About 12% of the world's forests are legislatively protected from harvest or exploitation, and 3% are certified by one of the major forest certification programs.

Government ownership still dominates in much of the world, at 87% of all forest lands. Enhanced management and protection of these lands will be crucial to achieving sustainable forest management in the future. Adequate government budgets, appropriate incentives and regulations for forest retention and management, and reduced waste and corruption will be required for improved forest management on public lands. For example, concession holders in developing countries report the land as being managed to gain access to forest resources, but implementation often may be weak at best.

The data provide evidence that many countries in the world are trying to achieve sustainable forest management, and certainly are trying to report data that suggest they are moving toward SFM goals. The empirical evidence that forests are actually well managed and protected, however, is often lacking. Enhanced SFM will require better reporting and verification, more areas covered, and enhanced implementation of SFM criteria and indicators in the future. Further progress in improving forest management worldwide also relies on gathering better information needed to monitor and analyze global forest trends. A mix of effective public policies and private markets will continue to be needed to help achieve global Sustainable Forest Management.

5. Literature Cited

Allen, L., 2001. Silvicultural treatments to enhance productivity. In: Evans, J. (ed). The Forests Handbook, Volume 2. London, Blackwell Science. 283 p.

Brown, C., 1998. Global Forest Products Outlook Study: Thematic Study on Plantations. Consulting Report. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 80 p.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2001. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Available at: http://www.fao.org/forestry/fo/fra/index.jsp

FAO, 2002. Yearbook of Forest Products. FAO Forestry Series No. 35. FAO Statistics Series No. 158. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 243 p.

Hyde, W., B., Belcher and J. Xu, (eds.), In prep. China's Reforms and Its Forestry Sector: Lessons for Global Forest Policy. Resources for the Future Press.

Kuusela, K., 1994. Forest Resources in Europe, 1950-1990. European Forest Institute Research Report 1. Cambridge University Press. 154 p.

Sedjo, R., and D. Botkin, 1997. Using forest plantations to spare natural forests. Environment 39(10): 14-20.

Smith, B., J. Vissage, R. Sheffield and D. Darr, 2001. Forest Resources of the United States, 1997. General Technical Report NC-219. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service North Central Forest Experiment Station. 190 p.

UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe), 2000. Forest Resources of Europe, CIS, North America, Australia, Japan and New Zealand. Geneva Timber and Forest Study Papers, No. 17. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Timber Section. Available at: http://www.unece.org/trade/timber/fra

UNECE, 2001. ECE/FAO Forest Products Annual Market Review, 2000-2001. Timber Bulletin, Vol. LIV, ECE/TIM/BULL/54/3. United Nations. Available at: http://www/enece.org/trade/timber

White, A., and A. Martin, 2002. Who Owns the World's Forests? Washington, D.C., Forest Trends. Available at: http://www.forest-trends.org

¹ Assistant Professor (corresponding author)
School of Forest Resources
University of Georgia
Athens, GA 30602-2152, USA
Phone: 706-542-3060 Fax: 706-542-8356
[email protected]

² Professor
Department of Forestry
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC 27695-8008, USA
Phone: 919-515-8780 Fax: 919-515-6193
[email protected]

³ Professor
Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences
Chittagong University
Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh
Phone: 880-31-633213 Fax: 880-31-726310
[email protected]

Paper prepared for the XII World Forestry Congress
Québec City, Canada 21-28 September 2003