0964-A1
E.S. Mahendrarajah[1]
Of Sri Lanka’s nearly population of 19 million, nearly 1.5 million are working in foreign countries, the majority of them in the Near East. Of the rest, more than half of them derive their incomes from agriculture and related activities. It is also said that half the population live below the poverty line of US$1 per day and a special ministry called “Samurdhi” has been set up to assist these people. In a well-endowed country like Sri Lanka, where over 92% of the population is literate, such an abominable situation of poverty is a riddle to many, and a paradox to others.
This paper looks at agroforestry as a means of alleviating poverty in Sri Lanka. It looks at possibilities for developing agroforestry in the following areas:
Buffer zones for enrichment planting.
The paper concludes that agroforestry that incorporates multiple species, for multiple uses, has to be deliberately designed for the short and long-term benefit of the communities.
The increase in population and the demands created by these communities on certain resources, such as poles, planks and paper, have shrunken the forests, and opened new opportunities outside the forest areas. Agroforestry, though practiced by all agricultural communities in a traditional manner, has had the capacity to dynamically adjust to new demands of the society. The raw material needs of the pulp and paper industries in Northern India, promoted the planting of poplars on the bunds of Paddy/Wheat crops, in the indo-Gangetic plains, providing additional cash incomes to the farmers. In Karnataka, and Andra Predesh, eucalypts planted in such manner, or as block plantations, provided the raw materials for the rayon industries.
In Sri Lanka, Agroforestry can be looked into under the following areas:-
1. Paddy Lands
2. Kandyan Home Gardens of the wetzone and mid country.
3. Home Gardens of the low country.
4. Tea, Rubber and Coconut Estates - known as the plantation crop areas.
5. Sea Coast/Drylands (Wastelands) and Marshy Areas.
6. Buffer Zones for enrichment planting.
It is important to note, that if the new models are to become sustainable (i). They should maximally depend on rain fall (ii). And be able to create ample employment places within the zone, (iii). Be able to create large amounts of biomass, that could be fractioned for different end uses. It is evident. That for a unit area of land, Photo synthetic efficiency over a period of time, can be obtained by a judicious mixture of plants. 1Nicanor Perlas and Clawson, have found in their studies in the Philippines, that mixed cropping by the locals, gave over 49mt/ha/yr of edible biomass, whereas monocropped rice under modern conditions, provided only 20 mt/ha/yr (of 3 crops)
Animal husbandry plays a significant role, in increasing rural household incomes. The productivity of the animals depend on quality feeds in quantities necessary, along with good husbandry which includes, health, sanitation and welfare measures. The production of fodder, especially tree fodder, has been a neglected field in Sri Lanka. Morus alba and 2Trichantera Gigantea are good food not only to ruminants but also to monogastric animals such as pigs, rabbits and poultry.
This is by and large, the largest sector, extending to nearly a million hectares, and having many cultural and economic interfaces with the country's farming communities. The water use seem to be in excess of the real needs of the crop, as many farmers utilise it also as a "Weedicide". The new method of "System rice intensification" (or the Madagascar system of cultivation, uses less water while increasing the production many folds. In suitable places, duck, fish intergration can increase incomes. In recent times, fresh water prawn 3(Macrobrachium rosenbergi) culture, during half of the year seems to have provided vast income jumps to the farmers.
Sesbania bispinosa, if grown in the Paddy Area, after the Paddy crop, could provide over 60 mt. Of dry wood, while fixing over 300 Kg N, and over 5t of leaf drop per ha, over a period of 6 months. Ricinus communis cultivation with eeri silk production, can be another opportunity. Butea monosperma, grown on bunds in Northern India, has multiple benefits to the farmers. The tree is a host to the Lac insect, laccifer Lac. If the trees are maintained at 10 m intervals on bunds, 60 trees could be had on an hectare, each producing a Kg of Lac. Priced at over 5$ per kg. an income of over 300$/ha/yr is obtainable. 4Sri Lankan handicrafts of lacquer works, obtained Lac from Putalam and Moneragala, which has lapsed now.
In the Indogangetic plains, populus deltoids is the favoured species on bunds. It is only in recent times, that some cultivars have been tried out at 5Sivanthakam, in Tamil Nadu, with success by the Swaminathan research foundation. 6Melia Azadirachta and thespesia populnea have been tried out in Maharashtra. In the Mindanos, eucalyptus deglupta is planted in the paddies at one meter distance in rows, and 10 meters between rows, in an East West orientation, and harvested routinely from year 6.
These gardens are also known as Kandyan forest gardens, for they mimic the tropical, evergreen forests. The only palms in this system are Cocos Nucifera, Caryota urens and areca catechu. It is suggested that to increase the staple food energy, Myroxylon sago too be incorporated. Other palms of value that can be included for better use of shade and space. Are:-
Palms
1. Cocos Nucifera
2. Caryota Urens
3. Areca Catechu
4. Myroxylon Sago
5. Arenga Pinata
6. Salacca Zalacca
7. Chamodorea Elegans/Oblongaea
8. Phytelephas Macrocaraa/Seemannii
9. Bactris Gasipaes
10. Serenoa Repens
11. Livistonia Jenkinsiana
7According to researchers, 10 families can derive their incomes from one hectare of arenga pinata. 8Vitex Parviflora, a timber species has been used as a live stake for pepper, in the visayas of the Philippines, along with gliricidia sepium. The boundary are girded with swietiana Macrophylla, Dravontomelon, Pterocarpus indicus, gmelina arborea, Manihot Glaziovii, and Ceiba Pentandra. Thespesia Populnea and Tectonea Grandis are found in the Sri Lankan context. Parkia speciosa and shorea macro phyla have been found to be good nurse crops for Cocoa and other crops in the Philippines. Both produce high income pods and nuts. Star anise (Illicium Verum) of Vietnam has been used as spice and medicinal. Hardwickia binnata and pterocarpus santalinus can be lopped for fodder, and produce valuable timber. Gnetum gnemon, Produces edible leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. The bark is medicinal. Like shorea Robusta, 9Gnetum Gnemon is associated with a mycorhizae called scleroderma sinnamariens, whose fruiting bodies are relished by people in Indonesia It is worthwhile to introduce irvingea gabonensis and irvingea Wombulu of Cameroon, for their valuable nuts. So could bertholetia excelsa and brossimum alicastrum. Pentaclethra macrophylla of Africa and P. Macroloba of South America produce valuable Oil seed pods. Dipreryx odorotissima, produce seeds used as Vanilla alternative. As for lianas, fevelea cordifolia, Tetra carpedium conophorum and telferea pedata can produce edible oil from their seeds. Coscineum fenestratum could be planted for its medicinal stems. It is surprising why calamus species had not been introduced into the KHG’s. If introduced they can increase job opportunities in the villages-in the handicraft fields. 10Karin Hoechegger has documented over 206 species of plants in the KHG’S, which can be further diversified for better value and profits.
According to the forestry sector master plan, 858,500 ha. are under home gardens, and 89000 ha. under state owned forests. Since most home gardens are small, compact trees, of natural origin or grafted dwarfs are sought after. The ideal ideotypes can vary according to the needs and tastes of the house holder. In Sri Lanka, dwarf caryota urens have been sited in many places. The author is aware of a few of them. So far no concerted efforts have been expended by any of the universities or research organizations, to do a detailed study on this valuable germplasm. 11Danial and Hedge of BAIF foundation report of an, Acacia Nilotica with upright branches - named Ac Nilotica Cv. Cupressiformis, and a dwarf type areca catechu found in Karnataka having an alternate year bearing habit, because of the excessive erectness of its fronds. Grafted Canarium Luzonicum, saimarouba Glauca, Inga edulis, Garcinia Cambogea, Mangifera Indica, Zebenthes Durio and Nepheleum Lappacium, can provide not only good food, but also cash incomes. 12In the mid country and wetzone areas vanilla planiformis creepers on Sesbania Grabdiflora can provide handsome incomes.
Agroforestry in tea is already practiced by smallholders. Caryota urens, Michelia Champaca Swietiana Macrophylla, artocarpus heterophyllus, and areca catechu have been included by them. The large - scale plantations are the ones that need to diversify. The most common shade trees in them are Albizia Moluccana, Grevillea Robusta, and to some extent eucalyptus grandis. The tea programme can be classified as (i) Pre Planting Preparations (ii) Low and high Shade (iii) Wind break planting (iv) Contour and hedge planting (v) Ravine and boundary planting 13In most cases, pre planting - land rehabilitation, has depended on, planting Cymbopogon confertiflorus or Tripsacum Laxum. If part of these grasses could be replaced by cymbopogon nardus or Cymbopogon flexuosus, six months from planting, an income is derivable - by sale of leaves for essential oil extraction. In my research, imperata cylindrica, and panicum repens were controlled by close planting of callianda calothyrsus and allowing it to eliminate the above weeds by heavy shade and competition.
Inga edulis too could be utilized for the above work, instead of Calliandra. Its pods known as Ice Cream beans are edible. Zonal food security should be encouraged by local planners and international donors. As a policy, tea plantations should diversify their main tea crop land with (i) Higher income providing crops/ (ii) Soil conservation crops/ (iii) Fuel wood crops for the workers and the tea processing factories / (iv) Fodder crops which have multiple benefits to the workers and the plantation companies. As contour planting and as hedges, tephrosea vogelli, Cinnamon Zeylanicum, Bohmeria Nervia, Morus Alba, Desmodium Spp., Flamlngea Congesta, Amorpha Fruiticosa, Salix babilonica, Fraxinus Chinensis, Piper Hispidinervium, Lespedeza Bicolor, Miscanthus, Cordario Calyx Gyroides, Caliandra Calothyrsus can be planted.
Of a total of 157,000 ha under Rubber, a large part of it is under small holders. The Rubber in Sri Lanka is a monocarp, while most of it in Indonesia is mixed plantation. The Dutch Colonialists allowed Indonesian Villagers to plant Rubber as one of their cash crops, while the British Colonialists in Sri Lanka prevented the Villages obtaining even seeds - by systematically burning them. Rubber can be easily diversified into, fruit and timber orchards.The Indonesian Experiences can be of great value to Sri Lanka. Several models have been of developed there. One model is where, 550 Rubber/ ha is Inter-planted with 1000 cinnamon Burmani or cassia Vera. We can modify the system and have cinnamon zeylanicam.
Gnetum Gnemon
Mangifera SPP.
Artocarpus SPP.
Aleurites Moluccana.
Shorea SPP.
Durio Zebenthes
Parkia Speciosa
Nepheleum Lappaceum
Langsium Domesticum
Pithocellobium Jiringa
Archedendron Pauciflorum
Cassia vera
Cinnamon Burmanii
Areca Catechu
Calamus Manan
Calamus Caecius
14In Sumatra, Rubber is only a part of a greater Agroforestry Ensemble, where the early cash crops are cinnamum Buemani, Coffea Arabica and Areca Catechu. The Canopy Trees are Alangium Kurzii, Toona Sinensis, Parkia Speciosa, and Archederndron Pauciflorum. The Latter two are Legumes and Produce Valuable Fruits. In fact all species that are normally in-corporated into the Kandyan home gardens can be included within the Rubber plantations. 15There is some work being carried out in Sri Lanka. Rubber is planted at 8' x 8' with a 60 feet band for tea. Litter drop from the Rubber along with its simulated forest effect seems to enhance the growth of tea. Pueraria and Desmodium, as cover crops, quicken nutrient turnover. It is suggested that as in Malaysia, Monopodial canes such as calamas mana and calamas caecius be grown in rubber, and be trained above the tapping table of the trees. It will bring in additional incomes and job opportunities to crafts people. Beekeeping in Rubber is profitable as there are, floral and extra floral nectarines in rubber. Lianas, such as fevellea cordifolia too could be tried, for their edible oil. The Rubber seed meal and the seed meal from fevellea could help livestock raising. Today, since there is a demand for edible oil, many are suggesting the uprooting of Rubber and Planting oil palm groves. According to 16Norman Myers, Fevellia can provide more oil per hectare, than oil palm. A pilot study can demonstrate the Viability of this proposition, In the Sri Lankan context.
During the first few years of growth, just as in rubber, some annual crops could be grown along with coconut. It is only after the eigth year, when the palm has raised its trunk by a couple of feet, that other crops can be cultivated under its shade. In the Midcountry, Cocoa, Pepper, Persea gratissima and some fruit trees, along with ginger and turmeric could be cultivated. In the low country, Papaya, Pine Apple and Banana along with yams such as Colocasia could be cultivated. The border areas are normally cultivated with tectonea grandis, berrya cordifolia, swietiana macrophylla and alstonea macrophylla. Some species that are to be tried in rubber plantations can also be tried out in coconut.
Except for areas in the Southwest, close to the Sinharaja heritage forest area, population pressure is minimal in other areas such as the Knuckles ranges in the hill country. In the knuckles, Cardomom cultivation above 3000 ft. MSL. has been banned and these plantations are being phased out. Piper hispidinervium, from whose leaves are distilled sassafras oil, which is the precursor for heliotropin used in the cosmetic industries, and piperonyl butoxide, used as a synergist in pyrethroid based biodegradable insecticides, can be cultivated. Caryota urens, already brings handsome return to people in the Sinharaja Area. Other crops that can be included are Chamodorea Spp. For its ornamental leaves, phytelephas seemanni - for its seeds for carving and Calamus Spp. for handcrafts. Eeri silk worm production can provide additional employments, in developing “Ahimsa Silk” products - (The pupae are not killed in this programme)
Coastal areas can be protected by casuarina equistifolia, Borassus flabellifer and 17zamea furfuracea. In Maharashtra, the Bamboo oxytenanthera Stocksi has been planted along the coast. In Haining country Zhegiang province of China, a salt resistant Bamboo - phylostachys Vivax is being. Planted. If these two dry area Bamboos could be adopted in Sri Lanka, vast strides in poverty alleviation could occur. The trees planted in dry areas can also be planted closer to the coasts along with cocos nucifera. Some valuable trees for the dry areas are
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Prosopis Alba |
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Prosopis Juliflora |
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Azadirachta Cineraria |
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Pongamia Pinnata |
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Bassia Latifolia |
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Syzigium Cumini |
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Aegle Marmelos |
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Feronea Limnea |
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Argania Spicata |
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In the marshy areas, nipafruiticans and Avicenna Spp. Can be planted. This area is a neglected field at the moment.
Policies should be designed to make the best and sustainable uses of natural capital. Agroforestry which incorporates multiple species, for multiple uses, has to be deliberately designed, for the short term and long term benefits of the communities. Gender biases have to be carefully studied as an ongoing process, lest development per se, can weigh heavily on the weaker segments of the society. International treaties on Global warming - such as the Kyoto Protocol’s clean development mechanisms, should be quickly translated into action, that can positively impact on the poor. An example would be of planting fuelwood species from funds derived from fossilfuel users. Genuine development of people can become a reality, only when such people have access to electricity clean water, food, hygiene, and suitable job opportunities. Biomass based gasifier - electricity generation can be a suitable option, with a cascading positive effect all the way down. Agroforestry can be a tool in realizing aremarkable change in society’s thirst, to rise above poverty, and its resultant visages of, squalor, disease, oppression and violence.
1. Obaidullah Khan. A. Z. M - FAO. At the conference - for forestry field officers-Chiang-Mai Thailand 26-29- June 1995.
2. Thomas. R. Preston and Enriquemorgue itio. Strategy for sustainable livestock production in the tropics. P24.
3. Madhusoodana kurup, Ranjeet. K. and Hari. B. Cochin university of Science and Technology - Infofish International 5/2002 - P. 48.
4. (Rupasinhala. Lacquer industry on the verge of collapse. The Island news paper 4/12/2002. P3)
5. (M. S. Swaminathan research foundation - Annual report 1992 P10) (Renato M. Labadan - Better environment foundation INC - Philippines)
6. (Eduardo - O- Mangaoang, Dept of Forestry Visayas College of Agriculture - Philippines)
7. (Willie Smits and widawati. - International MOF. Tropenbos Kalimantan Project. Domestication of Agroforestry trees in Southeast Asia - 1997. P186)
8. Karin Hoechegger has documented over 206 species of plants in the KHG’s, which can be further diversified for better value and profits.
9. (Suhardi Dept of Silviculture faculty of forestry - Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta - Indonesia).
10. Karin Hoechegger. Farming like the forest. Traditional home garden systems in Sri Lanka 1998.
11. (- Daniel J. N. and Hedge N. G. BAIF foundation. Dr. Manibhai Desai Nagar, Nabonai highway No. 4, Pune 411029 - India)
12. (Mahendrarajah. E. S. Organic Vanilla, an opportunity for growers processors and consumers. - 14th world congress of the IFOAM Aug 2002, Canada)
13. (Mahendrarajah. E. S. Income crops as incentives for farmer participation in Highland Management. International Symposium on mountain farming - Mussorie - Uttaranchal - India November 2002.
14. (Eric Penot small Holder Rubber Agroforestry. CIFOR - Indonesia)
15. Yogaratnam Rubber Research Institute. Feasibility of Intercropping Rubber with tea.
16. (Norman Myers. The non timber values of tropical forests. FFSD working Paper 10)
17. (Marivazquez. Institute of Biological Investigation Veracruz)
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[1] Gnanammah Integrated
Research Farm, 7/7, King Street, Matale, CP# 21000 Sri Lanka. Tel: 0094-74-460468; Fax: 0094-66-23519; Email: [email protected]. |