APPENDIX F
USING LOCAL AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE IN IMPROVING SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS IN FISHING COMMUNITIES

Introduction

1. There is a plethora of myth, hearsay, opinion and fact on local and traditional knowledge for all walks of life. The fisheries sector is particularly rich in custom, tradition and local knowledge, reflecting this in its communities, their established beliefs and practices. The location and seasonality of fishing grounds, fishing and processing technology, products in all degrees of development are all facets of this knowledge fund. The proximity to the natural resource base has a dominating influence on the culture and thinking of the fishing community. In some cases, the sector has been remarkable for technological innovation moving from traditional artisanal fisheries into industrial fisheries. In others, it has been remarkable for its resistance to change. It is also notorious for the competitivity for resources which obliterates the consciousness of sustainability. Until quite recently the majority of scientific attention has been focussed on resource and technology, whilst sustainability has also been mostly considered from those viewpoints.

2. The sector is also remarkable for the wealth generated by its industrial activities compared with the poverty experienced by many artisanal communities. This disparity is reflected in inequality of the distribution of technological knowledge and the investment to support it, between developed and developing nations and within countries themselves. Lack of political will to tackle the management of these social inequities lead to conflict and resource abuse. Science and technology to date have mostly taken a top-down approach, at best consultative, to resolving problems. Indeed, much academic research has been undertaken with results which are far from application to resolving the central issue that the artisanal sector faces viz. the improvement of their livelihoods and sustainability of the resources on which they depend.

3. However, the UNESCO/ICSU World Conference on Science for the Twenty-first Century: A New Commitment, 1999_ considered that: "Traditional and local knowledge systems, as dynamic expressions of perceiving and understanding the world, can make, and historically have made, a valuable contribution to science and technology, and that there is a need to preserve, protect, research and promote this cultural heritage and empirical knowledge". It recognized in its Framework for Action that : "Traditional societies, many of them with strong cultural roots, have nurtured and refined systems of knowledge of their own, relating to such diverse domains as astronomy, meteorology, geology, ecology, botany, agriculture, physiology, psychology and health. Such knowledge systems represent an enormous wealth. Not only do they harbour information as yet unknown to modern science, but they are also expressions of other ways of living in the world, other relationships between society and nature, and other approaches to the acquisition and construction of knowledge. Special action must be taken to conserve and cultivate this fragile and diverse world heritage, in the face of globalization and the growing dominance of a single view of the natural world as espoused by science. A closer linkage between science and other knowledge systems is expected to bring important advantages to both sides".

4. The World Development Report 1998/99: Knowledge for Development_ observes that: "knowledge is at the heart of economic growth and sustainable development, understanding how people and societies acquire and use it - and why they sometimes fail to do so - is essential improving peoples' lives, especially the lives of the poor".

5. Three lessons concerning the distribution of knowledge have been suggested as being important to the welfare of billions of people in developing countries:

• Developing countries must institute policies that enable them to narrow the knowledge gaps separating poor countries from rich;
• Developing country governments, multilateral institutions, non-governmental organizations, and the private sector must work together - to strengthen the institutions needed to address the information problems that cause markets and governments to fail;
• No matter how effective these endeavours are, problems with knowledge will persist. But recognizing that our knowledge is at the core of all our development efforts will allow us to discover unexpected solutions to seemingly intractable problems.

6. Perhaps these lessons are more attuned to improving the investment environment. Whilst not denying the first point above, it could also be pointed out that many developing countries also need to institute policies that enable them to narrow the knowledge gaps separating poor from rich in their own countries.

7. Knowledge for Africa - Building on Local Knowledge (World Bank 1998/99)_ takes the consultative/collaborative approach that "in encouraging the adoption of modern technologies, care must be taken not to undermine useful traditional knowledge. Local technologies often require fewer material resources than imported technologies, allowing them to weather the vicissitudes of local shortages and material constraints". "Efforts to harness local knowledge, or to reconcile it with new technologies, require the involvement of those who possess it. For the knowledge generated by local adaptive research to be relevant and broadly adopted requires full participation of end users and local communities in design and implementation".

8. Referring specifically to the fisheries sector in general and fisheries research and management particularly, the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 1995)_ recommends:

"States should investigate and document traditional fisheries knowledge and technologies, in particular those applied to small-scale fisheries, in order to assess their application to sustainable fisheries conservation, management and development". CCRF Article 12 Fisheries Research, para.12.12

"When deciding on the use, conservation and management of fisheries resources, due recognition should be given, as appropriate, in accordance with national laws and regulations, to the traditional practices, needs and interests of indigenous people and local fishing communities which are highly dependent on fishery resources for their livelihood".

CCRF Article 7 Fisheries Management, para. 7.6.6

"Conservation and management decisions for fisheries should be based on the best scientific evidence available, also taking into account traditional knowledge of the resources and their habitat, as well as relevant environmental, economic and social factors. States should assign priority to undertake research and data collection in order to improve scientific and technical knowledge of fisheries including their interaction with the ecosystem. In recognizing the transboundary nature of many aquatic ecosystems, States should encourage bilateral and multilateral cooperation in research, as appropriate". CCRF Article 6 General Principles, para. 6.4

"Recognizing the important contributions of artisanal and small- scale fisheries to employment, income and food security, States should appropriately protect the rights of fishers and fishworkers, particularly those engaged in subsistence, small-scale and artisanal fisheries, to a secure and just livelihood, as well as preferential access, where appropriate, to traditional fishing grounds and resources in the waters under their national jurisdiction". CCRF Article 6 General Principles, para 6.18

The Concepts Involved

Local and Traditional Knowledge

9. Local has a geographical or distributional inference, being defined as:

• Of, or relating to, or characteristic of a particular place;
• Of, or relating to a town, district or community rather than a larger area;
• Not broad or general; not widespread.

10. There is no inference that local knowledge must be transferred from one generation to the next or be permanently fixed in a location. Indeed, it might be temporary, if those who possess it move or are lost (cf. migrant fisherfolk?).

11. Traditional has been variously described as:

• "That which has elements of a culture passed down from generation to generation, especially by oral communication"
• "A mode of thought or behaviour followed by a people continuously from generation to generation; a custom or usage"
• "A set of such customs and usages viewed as a coherent body of precedents influencing the present"
• "A time-honoured practice or set of such practices"

12. In contrast to the term "local", the term "traditional" has deeper social and cultural inferences. Local knowledge may be the possession of an individual for part of their lifetime, traditional knowledge belongs to generations of communities. Traditional knowledge infers both transmission and stability over time. The mechanisms and linkages by which such information is transferred within the community or between communities are themselves a rich source of research into communication, as indeed are the barriers to that communication.

13. Both local and traditional knowledge are usually seen as distinct from industrial or research knowledge. This distinction has become blurred in recent years since industry, notably pharmaceuticals, has taken an active interest in researching local and traditional medicine, particularly in botanical sources. Research particularly sociological, has increased markedly in recent years, into local and traditional organisation of society searching for causes and solutions for poverty, as well as paradigms for sustainable development. The evolution of traditional fisheries into industrial fisheries is a fascinating source of inspiration. Take the example of the history of the North Sea herring fisheries, the traditional and local knowledge of fisher communities can be seen to adopt technologies until evolving into an industrial phase which expanded effort to virtual extinction of the resource. The fishery had experienced great poverty and for some, great wealth during its existence. The empty fishing quays of north-east Scotland are monuments to the extinct traditional fishery and witness to the failure of fisheries management.

14. Knowledge itself, has many shades of meaning: As long ago as 1755, Samuel Johnson_ wrote: "Knowledge is of two kinds: we know a subject ourselves, or we know where we can find information upon it". If applied to the situation of artisanal fishing communities in developing countries, it could be ventured that rarely have the "where" to find the second type of information.

15. As an alternative term, for countries which have a strong "indigenous" concept in their culture and policy, various definitions of "indigenous knowledge" have been proposed which incorporate both "traditional" and "local" knowledge, amongst them:

Unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific conditions of men and women indigenous to a particular geographic area. (Grenier, 1998)_

Local knowledge - knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. It contrasts with the international knowledge system generated by universities, research institutions and private firms. It is the basis for local-level decision making in agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, natural-resource management, and a host other activities in rural communities". (Warren, 1991)_

Traditional ecological knowledge can be defined as a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs, handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings with one another and with their environment. Further, traditional ecological knowledge is an attribute of societies with historical continuity in resource use practices; by and large, these are non-industrial or less technologically advanced societies, many of them indigenous or tribal". (Berkes, 1993)_

16. There is some concensus amongst researchers using various terms that such knowledge (i.e. indigenous): i) is linked to a specific place, culture or society; ii) is dynamic in nature; iii) belongs to groups of people who live in close contact with natural systems; and iv) contrasts with 'modern' or 'Western formal scientific knowledge'. (Studley, 1998)_

17. As knowledge is information there is a growing voice for the intellectual property rights of indigenous knowledge to be established, particularly felt in the bio-pharmaceutical sphere. Indigenous memory (which might be considered synonymous with traditional knowledge?) currently powers many contemporary claims of rights to resources e.g. land, fishing, minerals.

18. It appears that in the past, in the majority of cases, local and traditional knowledge and practices have been sufficient to sustain livelihoods but in a world of globalisation and immense pressures on resources, this knowledge is insufficient and needs expansion to save billions from poverty and starvation.

Livelihoods

19. The term "livelihoods" has many possible interpretations but within the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach, its definition is: a dynamic set of capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living. There are several variant models of sustainable livelihoods approaches (eg. UNDP, CARE, OXFAM, DFID) and these are compared by Carney, D.et al (1999)_. All adopt the asset-based approach, stressing the need to understand and facilitate effective micro-macro links. The variants differ in their understanding of sustainability and different levels of emphasis on empowerment. The UNDP is the only organisation to specifically stress technology in the framework.

20. The DFID Sustainable Livelihoods Approach and its framework (Carney, D., DFID, 1998) are particularly apt tools for considering the relationships of local and traditional knowledge to the sustainability of the fisheries livelihoods, and in particular the alleviation of poverty.

21. The linkages between the DFID SL framework and the CCRF as applied to the sustainability of artisanal fisheries livelihoods have been demonstrated by Campbell (1999)_ as part of the on-going work of the DFID-FAO Sustainable Fisheries Livelihoods Programme. The combination of CCRF and SLA is a particularly powerful vector for providing an empowering environment in the task of poverty alleviation.

22. Livelihoods are considered to be composed of five assets expressed as the central pentagon in the above framework. As these assets are of particular relevance in considering how local/traditional knowledge might improve these assets are explained:

• HUMAN CAPITAL: the skills, knowledge, ability to labour and good health important to the ability to pursue different livelihood strategies;
• PHYSICAL CAPITAL: the basic infrastructure (transport, shelter, water, energy and communications), the production equipment and means that enable people to pursue livelihoods;
• SOCIAL CAPITAL: the social resources (networks, membership of groups, relationships of trust, access to wider institutions of society) upon which people draw in pursuit of livelihoods;
• FINANCIAL CAPITAL: the financial resources which are available to people (whether savings, supplies of credit or regular remittances or pensions) and which provide them with different livelihood options; and
• NATURAL CAPITAL: the natural resource stocks from which resource flows useful for livelihoods are derived (e.g. land, water, wildlife, biodiversity and wider environmental resources).

23. Livelihoods are considered to be sustainable when they :

• Are resilient in the face of external shocks and stresses;
• are not dependent upon external support;
• maintain the long-term productivity of natural resources; and
• do not undermine the livelihoods of, or compromise the livelihood options open to, others.

24. "The SL approach (DFID,1999)_ aims to help people achieve lasting livelihood improvements measured using poverty indicators that they, themselves, define" i.e. the indicators are selected with reference to local and traditional knowledge. "This, in turn helps to combat exclusion. It is people-centred" ie. respects peoples' knowledge but requires them to share it. "It recognises that people have certain rights but also certain responsibilities to each other and to society more generally". This aspect may not be within the local knowledge domain and must be introduced in a participatory process. "It recognises the enormous diversity amongst the 1.3 billion extremely poor people in the world, and stresses the strengths of these people. If we want to make a difference we must build on these strengths, helping people to move in the directions that they want to move." i.e. facilitation of information exchange.

25. Examination of the livelihoods assets reveals that the strengths of communities are built on the knowledge, both traditional and recently acquired, of individual members and the group. It can be argued that more shared knowledge adds to the cohesion of the group (minimises exclusion) and allows its members to participate in decisions. On the other hand, reserved knowledge aids the formation of elite groups and can form the base for resistance to change. A serious question arises on the degree to which knowledge is shared within and around communities. Is it reserved for a certain gender, certain community members and /or their families, certain groups within the community, the community as a whole or other communities. Is information freely exchanged with government institutions, or is the exchange viewed with mistrust or is it traded for financial/political reward? Is information distorted or made mis-information in order to mislead? There are published examples of the confidentiality of local fisheries knowledge being breached by well intentioned but naïve (or egocentric) researchers. Another question is the process by which local and traditional knowledge is strengthened? Is it by the formal processes of education ie. schools or by exchange of information between peer groups or groups with superior assets? Do the processes exist to combine knowledge and innovation to achieve progress?

Sustainability

25. Common to the many definitions of "sustainability" is the notion that the structures, processes or change which empower communities to maintain or improve their livelihoods will last and will benefit future generations. This suggests that traditional practices incorporate some measure of sustainability.

26. Sustainability is considered to have four elements:

• Environmental - achieved when the productivity of key natural resources is conserved or enhanced for future generations;
• Economic - achieved if a baseline level of economic welfare can be achieved and sustained (this baseline is likely to be location-specific and dynamic);
• Social - achieved when social exclusion is minimised and social equity is maximised;
• Institutional - achieved when prevailing structures and processes have the capacity to continue to perform over the long term.

Vulnerability

27. All livelihoods are vulnerable to shocks, trends and seasonality and the livelihoods of artisanal fishermen are particularly prone to these influences and even more so in the face of poverty and a non-empowering environment. Macro-economic measures, globalisation trends and social pressures all compound the dilemma. However, local or traditional knowledge, is the core asset (K) the use of which enables communities to capitalise on their other potential assets. The local or traditional knowledge combined where necessary with introduced knowledge or innovation, provides the basis for coping strategies to buffer the forces which threaten livelihoods and to avert total disaster.

28. This process, involving the participation of communities in exchange of information with transforming processes and institutions, especially the former, generate an empowering environment (wider than the term "co-management" which tends to be resource specific). Within this environment, local and traditional knowledge are advanced, in combination with innovative or introduced knowledge.

A model for the role of knowledge in sustainable livelihoods

29. The process is demonstrated in the following diagram:

30. In this model, knowledge (K) is the core asset, drawn principally from the human assets but relying for its actual strength on the community appreciation of realised assets and for its potential in the uncapitalised assets. The participatory information exchange between the community and the wider world, if carried out in an atmosphere of mutual trust, may inject knowledge keys with which to unlock the potential assets. Alternatively, old and new knowledge merge or complement to provide the initiative for development which is expressed as an expanded livelihood strategy. This expanded livelihood strategy once applied generates a direct feedback of benefits to increase the asset holding of the community ("usually reflected a s the livelihood outcome") and/or, as demonstrated, may permit enhanced coping mechanisms to reduce the vulnerability of the livelihood (this process is visualised here as a filtering mechanism). Experience is fedback into the knowledge core. The questions arising, of course, are where and how this beneficial "new knowledge" is to be generated? Is there a pool of untapped knowledge waiting only for the means of application to be established?

31. Secondary benefits accruing to government institutions are better understanding of the populace and their needs, enhanced vision for policy development, contribution to the efficiency of coping mechanisms for environmental management and basis for improved governance.

32. Whilst extolling the virtues of an expanded knowledge base, it must be recognised that acting on new, untested and perhaps not fully understood information exposes the community to risk (increases their vulnerability) and for that reason they may be reluctant to act on it.

Conclusion

33. Campbell & Salagrama (2000)_ concluded that "indigenous knowledge of fishers is prodigious and its validity, reliability and predictive capacity have allowed fishing communities to use their resources sustainably over many generations. However, the size and scale of the social and environmental problems now facing the sector mean that new knowledge is required to repond quickly. Traditional knowledge generating systems and the use of indigenous knowledge in isolation from the outside world is often inadequate to cope with these challenges (trends, shocks). New approaches are required".

34. They also concluded that "Formal fisheries research has not always been as successful in generating the kind of knowledge which policy makers and fishers need as it should have been. It is well recognised that this situation must change. In future there will need to be a greater emphasis on research being demand, rather than supply, driven. This will require research to more closely match the multi-sectoral nature of the lives of fishers and to forge linkages between natural science methods with those of the social sciences in multidisciplinary ways".

35. Finally, the Committee is reminded of the recent Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific Knowledge (UNESCO 1999)_ with its specific commitments and activities for its Science Agenda, particularly in the understanding and use of traditional knowledge, (Arts.33,83,84, 85,86,87 <governments>; art.33 <universities/research institutions>; art.32 <scientists/ scientific community>; arts.32,85,86 <NGOs/society at large>). Bearing these commitments in mind, especially Art.32: "Modern scientific knowledge and tradional knowledge should be brought closer together in interdisciplinary projects dealing with the links between culture, environment and development in such areas as the conservation of biological diversity, management of natural resources, understanding of natural hazards and mitigation of their impact. Local communities and other relevant players should be involved in these projects. Individual scientists and the scientific community have a responsibility to communicate in clear language the scientific explanations of these issues and the ways which science can play a key role in addressing them", the Committee is invited to consider the following:

Suggested Action by the Committee

36. The Committee may wish to discuss the issue on the basis of the following:

• What information do fisherfolk need to sustain and improve their livelihoods?
• How can the information be expressed in ways they understand?
• What sort of research do institutions need to undertake to fulfil the needs of artisanal fisherfolk?
• What sort of research organisation is required to undertake the holistic SL approach?
• How are fisherfolk to be involved in research?
• How can these needs be discussed with the communities that they are intended to help?
• Can the fishing communities benefit from industrial research?
• Should they be shielded from implied risk as they attempt to improve their livelihoods by applying new knowledge? If so, how?
• To whom does local & traditional knowledge belong: the fisherfolk, their communities, the government or the state?
• How can this be embodied in polity and law?
• How can the fisherfolk and their communities have those rights ensured?