INTRODUCTION
Main Non-Wood Forest Products
The most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) of Iran are dying (crocin extracts, henna), medicinal plants (cumin) and exudates (gum tragacanth).
Other NWFP include aromatic plants and essential oils, honey and edible foods (nuts) such as Pistachios (Pistacia vera) and Walnuts (Juglans regia).
General information
The use of NWFP in Iran has a very long history: evidence of the use of medicinal plants goes back a thousand years, when Avicenna, the known Iranian medical scientist and practitioner, wrote a volume on medicinal plants upon which western medicine was based until the thirteenth century.
The pastoral nomads of Iran have sustainably managed rangelands for thousands of years. Until the early twentieth century, the rich grasslands, which cover some 90 million ha, provided the basis for national governments formed by nomadic pastoral tribes. Rangelands were protected and used as pasture for livestock (sheep and goats, cattle, camels, horses and donkeys, domestic fowl); to provide fuel wood; as hunting grounds; for harvesting wild plants as medicines; for dyeing material for handicrafts such as rugs, and industrial products such as gums; for extracting building materials for tents, fencing and tools; for harvesting and gathering wild plants as a constant and varied source of food. This last use has given nomads the leading nutritional edge over settled populations. Wild herbs, roots, berries, spices and fruits provide a rich supplement of vitamins, minerals, proteins and carbohydrates that many settled villagers and poor urban populations lack.
Range vegetation cover has many benefits including the following:
· Conservation of soil and protection from erosion;
· Maintaining the hydrological balance;
· Greening and purifying the environment;
· Provision of wildlife habitats;
· Providing forage and fodder for villager's and nomad's livestock;
· Through the grazing animals providing a part of the protein requirements of the country;
· Producing medicinal herbs and other products for human use. (Iran-UNEP-FAO Initiative, 1999).
At present, the production and use of some NWFP are encountering difficulties. The sustainability of rangelands, which is covering 55 percent of the country's area, is threatened by recent policies, particularly the efforts to settle nomads and the support to the expansion of dry farming.
PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS
Food
Iran is one of the main countries where natural stands of walnut trees (Juglans regia) still exist, mainly in the north and western forests of the country. The presence of old seed trees in many ecological zones of Iran, from the Caspian forest in the North to the area of Kerman, Fars, and Izeh in the South, testifies the long history of natural and artificial planting and selection of this species. In Iran, walnut trees can be found at an altitude of 0 to 2 500masl. Both, natural stand and plantations manifest a high genetic variability (De Salvador, 1988).
Walnut trees have traditionally been planted for their fruit and for their high quality timber. The kernel, rich in fat and protein, is used as a component of Persian food and has and important place in the Persian nut production.
The valuable nut of the Pistachio tree (Pistacia vera), is not only used for consumed but also for its medicinal properties. With an annual export of nearly 56 000 tonnes, pistachio and its kernel constitute one of the most important Iranian non-oil export commodities
The fruit of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is another major exported commodity. The main regions under palm cultivation are Khuzistan, Fars, Aerman, Boushehr, Oistan, Eaiuchestan and some desert marginal lands. The whole land under date cultivation is estimated to produce more than 0.5 million tonnes annually.
Pomegranate (Punica granatum) is also grown in Iran. The main production centers are found in Saveh, Yazed, Kashan, Khorasan, Isfahan, Ars, Kermanshahan, and Mazanderan. Pomegranate is consumed as a fresh fruit or is made into a seasonal sauce. Its skin and seeds are largely used in the dye making and pharmaceutical industry. The area under pomegranate cultivation is estimated to be 540 594 hectares with an annual production of 496,215 tonnes, and an annual export volume of 9 532 tonnes (Report of the Islamic republic of Iran on forestry development and key events,1996).
Fodder
Currently the rangelands of the country produce about 10 million tones of grazable dry matter per year, which is sufficient for feeding 50 million animal units for 100 days. By implementation of suitable range rehabilitation programmes, fodder production can be increased by at least 35 mil. tones of usable dry matter per year, which is almost equivalent to the traditional flock and herd feed requirements.
The difference between the actual and the potential production is due to past policies lack of co-ordination, incorrect utilization, and destruction of rangelands by cultivation and conversion of these to the low yielding rain-fed crops (FAO, 1991).
Medicines (Riazi, 1997)
Medicinal, culinary, and aromatic herbs have traditionally been used in Iran for many generations and have always been regarded as an integral part of farming and agricultural practices. Atraphaxix spinosa, fenngreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum), sweet root, almonds, Atropa belladonna, Salvadora persica, Nigella and Anchusa officinalis are amongst some of the plants used by the Iranian people.
Currently, research on medicinal plants and herbs is stimulated by the government and the private sector in Iran. Research is carried out by universities, pharmaceutical institutes, experimental farms and research centers. The Horticulture Department of the Ministry of Agriculture now also deals with medicinal plants and herbs affairs.
Iran is one of the main centers of Cumin (Cuminum cyminum) production. The area under cultivation is 50 000 hectares with an average annual production of 50 000 tonnes. In Iran, Cumin is cultivated in Eastern Khorasan, Sabzevar, Birjand, Gonabad, Sorkhe, Garmsar and Kerman.
The plant fits into the farming pattern of any given area. It has a short growing season of 100-120 days. The sowing season extends from December to mid-March. In plant rotation, cumin follows the summer crops and its maintenance does not affect the other cultivated crops. However, intensive weeding must be carried out in the early stages of its growth.
Cumin is used as a medicine to cure acid indigestion, heartburn, sour stomach, colic, constipation and flatulence. In powder form, mixed with other nutrients, it is prescribed as baby food and in the treatment of coughs. Cumin is also used as a toxicant for the eradication of harmful insects and pests. Finally, it has a common usage as an additive in confectionery, pastry, cheese, Soya and salads.
Iran exports cumin to Dubai, Pakistan, Japan, Cambodia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Germany, France, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Hungary, the Philippines, Singapore, Belgium and the United Kingdom.
Perfumes and cosmetics
Certain aromatic plants have been used traditionally as medicine, while others, notably varieties of roses and herbs, have been used for perfuming and flavouring. Production of rose water and water extracts (Araghiat) in central Iran in Kashan has led to the growth of a flourishing cottage industry as well as establishing the first industrial level rose water production unit.
Although considerable data on the occurrence and use of aromatic plants species is available, information on their quantity, consumption and export is scarce and limited.
Export and import figures of aromatic plans are not known, but data on export and import of perfumery raw material and other material used for the flavour and fragrance industry (85 million Iranian Rials, IRR)3 and export of some (IRR14 million) reveal the underlying feature, which is an imbalance in the trade of such items.
Despite the existence of a rich flora and the traditional application of the natural resources in Iran, there does not seem to be any production of essential oils in the country. The main exception being some 20 kg of rose oil, which is being exported annually (FAO, 1991).
Dying and tanning
Crocin extract is the trade term for the yellow, water-soluble food colorant obtained from Cape jasmine (Gardenia jasminoides L.) and from saffron (Crocus sativus L.). However, the extracts are not used interchangeably in all applications since saffron is valued as much for its aroma and flavour as for its colouring properties and, moreover, it is the world's most expensive spice/colouring.
Crocus sativus L. is a perennial, which resembles the purple spring crocus but blooms in the autumn. It is adaptable to a wide range of climates from the temperate to the sub-tropical and on soils varying from sandy to well-drained clay loams. Most commercial production areas may be described as dry. Two heavy rainfalls are sufficient, one in the spring and the other in the autumn.
Harvesting spans four to six weeks in the autumn. Each plant only flowers for about fifteen days and harvesting, therefore, must be timely. Intact flowers are picked and this is done early in the morning to prevent withering. On the same day the stigmas are removed from the harvested flowers the drying process is initiated.
Yields of flowers vary considerably according to local site conditions. On average one hectare yields one million blooms, which provide 50 kg of fresh stigmas and 10 kg of dried saffron.
Gardenia jasminoides Ellis originates from temperate areas but grows also well in the tropics at altitudes above 400 m. It requires an open sunny position on well-drained soils and prefers a soil pH of 6 to 7. The fruits are first dried and then extracted with aqueous alcohol. Crocin yields of up to 10 percent have been reported for dried fruit.
Quantification of the international trade in saffron is made difficult by the shortcomings in the statistics of many countries. Total annual trade is estimated at 50 tonnes, with Western Europe, North America and the Gulf States as the major markets. Japan and South American countries are also significant consumers. The principal supplier to all markets, except in the Gulf States, is Spain but it also imports Iranian and Indian material which, presumably, re-enters trade under a Spanish label. Annual import levels for individual countries fluctuate in response to availability and prices The USA, for example, took 3 tonnes in 1992 and this level rose to 8.3 tonnes in 1994 (FAO, 1995).
Henna is a product derived from the dried leaf of Lawsonia inermis L., a shrub or small tree which is indigenous to the area between Iran and northern India. The plant has been introduced widely throughout the tropics and sub-tropics as an ornamental (frequently as a fragrant hedge), for home use as a dyestuff and elsewhere as a commercial crop, notably in several North African countries. Aqueous extraction of the dried leaf provides a dye, which can range in colour from black, to red through to blonde (neutral). Since ancient times, henna has been employed as a cosmetic dye for hair, skin and nails and it has acquired a particular significance in Islamic culture. More recently, there has been an increase in its usage as a hair dye in Western Europe and North America.
Prior to the widespread availability of synthetic dyestuffs, henna was employed also as a dye for textiles and leather. In the Persian Gulf market, black henna prices during 1992 ranged from US$700 per ton for top grades to US$250 per ton for lowest grades. Under rainfed conditions the dried leaf yield in the first year may be around from 200 kg/ha and than increases from 1 000 to 1 500 kg/ha in the following years. With irrigation and heavy fertilizer treatment yields can be as high as 2 000 kg/ha the peak productivity years (FAO, 1995).
Iran follows India and Pakistan as main supplier to the Middle East market.
Exudates
Gum tragacanth is an important commercial gum produced by several shrubby plants of the genus Astracantha which is grown from Pakistan to Greece, particularly in Iran and Turkey (Anderson, 1989). The exudate is produced spontaneously on the bark of the shrub, but the yield is often increased by making an incision and driving wooden wedges into it. (Iqbal, 1995).
Iran is the main producing country within the Asia-Pacific region. Small quantities are also produced in Afghanistan, but export consignments are very rare. About 70 percent of supply originates from Iran. According to Agricultural Products November 1991, Iran's average annual production potential has been estimated at 400 tonnes (Iqbal, 1995).
Iran's export of tragacanth was 91 tonnes in 1987, increasing to 142 tonnes in 1988. The export volume further increased to 257 in 1990. Thus, there was an increase of 182 percent in 1990, over exports in 1987. With this growth rate, it is expected that Iran may very soon be able to export 400 tonnes of the production. Tragacanth finds markets in many different countries, but the EEC, USA Japan and the former Soviet Union are the major importing regions (Iqbal, 1995).
Table 1. Iran's export of tragacanth in 1987-1990
Year |
1987 |
1988 |
1989 |
1990 |
Export value (tonnes). |
91 |
142 |
176 |
257 |
Source: Iqbal (1995)
ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS
Beekeeping and trade in honey have been practised in Iran for many hundreds of years. Evidence of this activity can be traced back to the Persian Empire. Traditional beekeeping, based on local resources and materials, has greatly declined since the introduction and rapid success of modern frame hives in the 1950's. Furthermore, changes in beekeeping over the last decade have been due to the devastating effects of the Varroa disease caused by the mite Varroa jacobsi (Paterson, 1994).
Of the six main honeybee species of the world, four are found in Iran: Apis dorsata, A. flora, A. cercana and A. mellifera. The first two are found in the forests of the Elburz and Zagros ranges, A. cercana is found in a limited area of northern Khorassan in northeastern Iran. A. mellifera meda (named after the Medes, the inhabitants of north-western Iran who appeared in the ninth century BC) is native to the country.
Every year imported queens reduce the purity of the native stock of A. mellifera meda, partly as a result of the lack of studies and selection of the species. Similar problems apply to silkworms: of the 12 species known unofficially in the country, only one is the subject of research. Once completely self-sufficient in silkworm production, Iran now imports silkworm eggs every year (FAO, 1991).
The 1986 annual report of the Ministry of Agriculture indicates the presence of 1 331 877 colonies of honey bees in Iran of which less than one quarter are traditional hives. The modern hives produce 10 kg. A year, whereas the traditional hives have an annual yield of 3 kg. The important centers of beekeeping are the provinces of: East and West Azerbaijan, Esfahan, Gilan, Masandaran, Tehran, Farse, Lorestan, Kerman, Hamedan and Markazi. The report also states that the value of the beekeeping industry on a national basis is IRR32 963 953 000.
The bee Apis mellifer meda is indigenous to northern Iran. However, as a result of the heavy losses caused by disease and the considerable importation that have been made in recent years, the honey bees currently used are derived from crosses of local and imported specimen (Paterson, 1994).
REFERENCES
Anderson, D.M.W. 1989. NET gums. Ancient and modern commercial products. NFT highlights, 89-1-01. Nitrogen Fixing Association. Hawaii.
De Salvador, F.R. 1988. Assistance to walnut production in Iran: Final Mission Report. FAO. Rome.
FAO. 1991. FAO project (Iran-IRA/89/030) Enhancing research development and capabilities of aromatic plants.
FAO. 1995. Natural Colorants and Dyestuffs. A review of production, markets and development potential. by C.L. Green. Non-wood forest products, 4. FAO. Rome, Italy.
Iqbal, M. 1995. International trade in non-wood forest products in the Asia-pacific region. beyond timber: social, economic and cultural dimensions on non-wood forest products in Asia and the pacific. Proceedings of a regional expert consultation. 28 November - 2 December 1994. FAO/RAP, Bangkok.
Iran- UNEP- FAO Initiative. 1999. Low cover country (LFCC) Meeting.
Ministry of Agriculture. 1986. The annual report.
Paterson, P.D. 1994. Caspian Model Forest Management Plan. Iran. Apiculture. FAO project (FO:DP/IRA/89/014) in collaboration with the Forest and Range Organization, Iran.
Report of the Islamic republic of Iran on forestry development and key events. 1996. Presented to: The Twelfth Session of the Near East Forestry Commission. 21-24 October. Cairo, Egypt.
Riazi, Y. 1997. Medicinal herbs, culinary and aromatic plants in agriculture of Iran. paper submitted to The International Expert Meeting on Medicinal, Culinary and Aromatic Plants in the Near East (Cairo, 19-21 May, 1997). Ministry of Agriculture, Iran.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report has been realized in support to the FAO Forest Resource Assessment 2000. The content is mainly based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome and on information collected by Ms Sabra, American University of Beirut, Lebanon.
Additional information on NWFP in Iran would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.
QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF IRAN
Product |
Resource |
Economic Value |
References | ||||||||
Category |
Import-ance |
Trade name |
Species |
Part used |
Habitat |
Source |
Utilisa-tion |
Quantity, value |
Remarks |
References | |
1, 2, 3 |
F, P, O |
W, C |
N, I |
||||||||
Plants and plant products |
|||||||||||
Food |
2 |
Pistachios |
Pistacia atlantica |
F, O |
W, C |
N |
Production volume in 1989-1993 of 1 567 t |
Iran Report, 1996 | |||
2 |
Date |
Phoenix dactylifera |
F,O |
W,C |
N,I |
Annual production of 54 000 t |
FAO, 1991 | ||||
1 |
Pomegranate |
Punica granatum |
P |
C |
N, I |
Annual production 496 215 t Annual export of 9 532 t |
FAO, 1991 | ||||
Fodder |
F |
W |
Annual production worth 10 million of grazable dry matter |
FAO, 1991 | |||||||
Perfumes, cosmetics |
U |
Achillea sp. |
le,fl |
F |
W |
N,I |
Import of IRR85 million; Export of IRR14 million |
FAO, 1991 | |||
Zataria multiflora |
le |
||||||||||
Salvia hydrangea |
le |
||||||||||
Nepeta crassifolia |
le |
||||||||||
Rhus coriaria |
le, fr | ||||||||||
Medicines |
1 |
Cumin |
Cuminum cyminum |
pl |
O |
C |
N, I |
Annual production of 50 000 t |
Riazi, 1997 |
Dying and tanning |
1 |
Crocin extract |
Gardenia jasminoides |
fr |
F, O |
W, C |
N, I |
Annual export of 50 t |
FAO, 1995 | ||
Saffron |
Crosus sativus |
fl |
F, O |
N, I |
Approximate yield: 10 kg of saffron/hectare |
FAO, 1995 | |||||
1 |
Henna |
Lawsonia inermis |
le |
F,O |
W, C |
N, I |
Production of 1 000-2 000 kg/ha Price=US$ 250-700/t |
Iran and India are the main suppliers to the Middle East area |
FAO, 1995 | ||
Exudates |
1 |
Gum tragacanth |
Astracantha sp. |
gu |
F,O |
W |
N, I |
- Average annual production = 400 t; - Export of 257 t in 1990 |
Iqbal, 1995 | ||
Animals and animal products |
|||||||||||
Honey, beeswax |
2 |
Apis mellifera meda |
ho |
F, O |
W, C |
N |
1 331 877 colonies |
Modern hives produce 10kg/year Traditional hives produce 3kg/year |
Paterson, 1994 |
Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho honey; la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - Others: Trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international
3 1 000 Iranian Rials (IRR) = US$0.57 (exchange rate on 14 June 2001).