INTRODUCTION
Main Non-Wood Forest Products
The main non-wood forest products (NWFP) of Pakistan are food products such as mushrooms (e.g. Morchella esculenta, M. conica, M.anqusticipt), honey, pine nuts (Pinus gerardiana), walnuts (Juglans regia), fruits (Diospyros lotus, Capparis aphalla, Ziziphus spp., Viurnum nervosum, Morus alba), vegetables (Bauhinia variegata, Moringa oleifera, Dryopteris filix-mas), condiments (Punica granatum, Carum carvi), medicinal plants (e.g. Valeriana wallichii, Artemisia maritima, Hyoscyamus niger, Ephedra nebrodemsis, Digitalis purporea) and essential oils (e.g. Eucalyptus oil, Peppermint oil, Menthol, Lemon oil and Orange oil)
Other NWFP include exudates such as resins (Pinus roxburghii) and gums (palosa gum from Acacia modesta), tannins (Acacia nilotica), utensils and construction materials such as bhabar grass ( Eulaliopsis binata) and fibres (Nonnorrhops ritchieana) miscellaneous products such as soap nut (Sapindus mukorossi), neem leaves and seeds (Azadirachta indica), walnut bark (Juglans regia) and animal products (Honey and silk cocoons).
Mushrooms, pine nuts, some medicinal plants and resins constitute the main export products.
PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS
Food
A variety of black mushrooms or morels (Morchella esculenta, M. conica, M. anqusticipt, etc.) grow naturally in the temperate forests of Pakistan between an altitude of 1 800 and 3 000 meters above sea level (masl). Around 50 tonnes of dried morels are collected each year by about 150 000 forest dwellers, mainly children and women.
The morels are purchased by local grocers or roving purchasers who sell them to dealers in nearby towns. The dealers sell the morels to wholesalers in Mingora, Rawalpindi and Peshawar. From there the mushrooms end up in the big cities such as Karachi, Lahore and Islamabad. Some of the wholesalers in Mingora are exporters as well.
Since 1962, the price of morels has risen constantly from Pakistan Rupees (Rs) 806 per kilogram of dried mushrooms to the current level of more than Rs 4 000per kilogram. The gatherers, however, get one-half to two-thirds of the export price (RAPA, 1994).
The entire quantity of morels is exported; generating Rs.130 to 150 in foreign exchange (RAPA, 1994). Except for drying, de-stalking, grading and fumigating, no further processing is involved. To increase the supply base, technology for their cultivation needs to be developed and standardized for the benefit of the forest dwellers (Iqbal, 1991).
The roasted seeds of Pinus gerardiana, locally known as chalghoza pine, are very popular in Pakistan. Natural pine forests occur in the dry temperate zone in Waziristan, near the Pakistan-Afghanistan border and in some parts of Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier Province.
Seeds are collected from the still-green cones by climbing the trees and wrenching off the cones with hooks attached to long poles. The cones are buried for about a fortnight until they open. The seeds are then extracted by striking the cones against a hard surface. The pine nuts are roasted by mixing them in a special kind of soil in iron containers placed over fire.
A tree yields 20 to 40 kilograms of nuts. The roasted nuts are sold at Rs1 500 per 40 kilograms. Total production in the country is estimated at 21 000 tonnes of which 95 percent comes from Baluchistan Total annual value of production is about Rs37.5 million.
In addition to domestic consumption, the pine nuts are exported to the Middle East. Information on the export of pine nuts during the last five years is given in Table 1 in the annex, which indicates that about 271 tonnes of pine nuts are exported each year, fetching Rs.6.3 million.
Table 1. Export of roasted pine nuts from Pakistan
Year |
Quantity (tonnes) |
Value (RS 1 000) |
Unit value (Rs/Kg) |
1986 |
768 |
11 131 |
14.49 |
1987 |
234 |
6 996 |
29.78 |
1988 |
105 |
2 800 |
26.59 |
1989 |
122 |
4 063 |
33.28 |
1990 |
125 |
6 719 |
53.72 |
Average |
271 |
6 342 |
31.57 |
Source: Tenth World Forestry Congress (1991)
Walnut (Juglans regia) kernels are a favourite dry fruit in the country. Walnut trees grow naturally between 1 500 and 3 000 meters in the northern and northwestern mountains. In cultivated form, they grow at about 1 000 meters. The total production is about 20 000 tonnes per year. The majority is produced in the North-West Frontier Province and Azad Kashmir. The average wholesale price is Rs10 per kilogram. The total annual value of the production is around Rs200 million. The average number of walnut trees per household is five and average production per tree is 115 kilograms (Iqbal, 1991). About 35 000 families are involved in walnut production. The entire production is consumed within the country.
The wild persimmon tree (Diospyros lotus) grows naturally between 600 and 1 800 masl in the north and north-western mountains. The fruit is purple, globoid or ovoid, and 12 to 20 millimetres in diameter. It has a sweet taste and can be eaten fresh or dried. Semi-dried fruits are collected from the trees in November and December. The number of households involved in collecting persimmon is about 2 000 (Iqbal, 1991).
Wild persimmon is considered an inferior fruit tree, because the fruits are perishable and deteriorate in storage. An average tree can yield more than 120 kg of dry fruit. However, not all of it is collected. The total annual production is estimated at about 80 tonnes (Iqbal, 1991), of which most comes from the North-West Frontier Province. All of it is consumed domestically (Iqbal, 1995). In 1994 wholesale price was Rs3.50 to 3.75 per kilogram and the total value of the production has been estimated at Rs2.8 to 3.0 million.
Unopened flower buds of the tree Bauhinia variegata are collected as a favourite vegetable called Kachnal. The tree is cultivated in plains and sub-mountainous tracts. Flower buds, which appear from March to April, are collected 2 to 3 times a season. The collection of the individual buds is a tedious process.
An average tree yields 20 to 25 kilograms. Total production in Pakistan is estimated to be 30 tonnes, of which 20 tonnes are produced in the North-West Frontier Province. Wholesale price is Rs. 5 to 10 per kilogram. The vegetable is cooked fresh as well as in dried form. All of it is consumed within the country.
The drumstick, or horse-radish tree (Moringa oleifera), is locally known as "suhanjna" and cultivated on a limited scale in irrigated plains of the country, primarily for its partially opened inflorescences. These are eaten as a vegetable. There is a small supply of about 10 tonnes, which is used domestically. Prices average around Rs.7 to 8 per kilogram (Iqbal, 1991).
Dryopteris filix-mas is a male fern called Kinjai which grows in moist temperate forests in the country at 1,500 to 3,000 masl. Women, while going to forests for grazing livestock or collecting firewood, collect the fern. It is available from mid-April to mid-May. Total production is 15 to 20 tonnes, all of which is used locally. Average retail price is Rs.7 to 8 per kilogram (Iqbal, 1991).
Dried seeds of wild pomegranate (Punica granatum), locally known as "anar dana," are widely used in cooking to develop a sour taste in dishes. They also have medicinal properties. The tree grows naturally in sub-mountainous tracts of the country from 900 to 1 800 masl. Flowers appear in April and May and the fruit is ready for harvesting in September and October. An average tree yields 15 to 25 kilograms of fresh fruit (Iqbal, 1991).
Production of fresh pomegranate fruit is estimated at 35 kilograms per household. About 6 000 to 7 000 families collect wild pomegranate fruits. The seeds are extracted by 150 to 200 old women who work in the warehouses of dealers. The women generally do not like the work because it stains their hands.Total production of the fruit is about 250 tonnes, of which two-thirds comes from the North-West Frontier Province and one-third from the Punjab. The fruit yields 90 to 95 tonnes of dried seed and about 100 tonnes of skin. The skin is used by tanneries in Punjab. The entire production of Pakistan wild pomegranate is consumed within the country. It is not enough to meet the local demand and some quantities are imported from Iran. The Iranian anar dana is, however, of inferior quality because of its sweetish taste and is mostly used in pharmaceutical preparations by local Greco-Arab pharmacies (Iqbal, 1991).
Carum carvi is a perennial herb with thick tuberous roots. It grows wild in dry temperate regions of the country. The plant is known locally as "zeerasiah" and is widely used to flavour bread, biscuits, cakes and cheese. It is also an ingredient of pickling spice. It is a stomach soothing medicine and is occasionally used for flatulent colic and as an adjutant or corrective for medicines. The fruit is collected before ripening. The plants are dried and fruits are thrashed, cleaned, and stored in bags. Total production is about 300 tonnes, all of which is consumed locally (Khan, 1985). Wholesale prices range from Rs.160 to 180 per kilogram.
Small quantities of wild fruit such as gurgura (Reptonia buxifolia); deela (Capparis aphalla), pelu (Salvadora oleoides); jujube (Ziziphus spp.); sumal (Berberis lycium); guch (Viburnum nervosum); wild fig (Ficus glometra); and mulberry (Morus alba) are collected by men, women and children for domestic use and often eaten on the spot. The wild fruit is collected by graziers in the forests. Occasionally, small quantities appear on the local market.
Medicines
The use of medicinal plants has played a very important role in the province of Balochistan since the prehistoric era. The dry, vast desert of the province has been a source of plant stock with a higher content of active chemicals than the tropical rainy areas of the subcontinent. More than 70 percent of the local communities depend on medicinal plants and the local people have their own plant classification according to the use and effects on health. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants forms the basis for health care in the local communities.
A survey of the naturally available plant wealth of Pakistan shows that medicinal plants grow in abundance in Hazara, Malak and Kurram Agency, Murree Hills, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Baluchistan, or are cultivated on farmlands in Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, North West Frontier Province and Kashmir. According to the surveys carried out by the Pakistan Forest Institute (1989), 500 tonnes of medicinal plants are produced in Hazara and Malakand, 16 tonnes in Murree Hills, 38 tonnes in Azad Kashmir and about 24 tonnes in Northern Areas (Khan & Zaidi, 1989). These plants are collected from the wild, dried and processed and sold in the local markets or exported to other countries. Pakistan obtains more than 80 percent of its medicaments from higher plants.
Medicinal plants are used as:
· Health care products in traditional medicine (either as raw, single herb preparations or as manufactured finished products, including substances of psychotropic and ritual/religious value);
· Raw material for the pharmaceutical industry for extraction of essential oils, fixed oils, tannins, gums and resins, and pharmacologically active constituents like alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, etc.;
· Culinary additions, spices and colourings;
· Natural cosmetics and in perfumes;
· Health foods either distributed through pharmacies under prescription or as "over-the-counter" medicines (Khan & Zaidi, 1989).
The collection of medicinal plants is controlled by the Forest Department. Three methods of collection are practised (Iqbal, 1991; RAPA, 1987):
· Leasing the area for collection of medicinal herbs. This method is used in the Hazara forests in the North-west Frontier Province.
· Collection by the traders from local people who pay nominal royalties to the Forest Department. This method is common in the Malakand forests in the North-West Frontier Province.
· In Azad Kashmir, the Forest Department auctions off fixed quantities.
The method adopted in Malakand forests has given encouraging results. It is flexible and competitive because of the absence of unnecessary controls from the Forest Department. As a result, Mingora has emerged as one of the biggest trading centres of medicinal herbs in the country. Some of the traders in Mingora also export medicinal herbs (Iqubal, 1991).
The herbs are sold either dried or fresh to the local grocers who sell them to wholesalers. The wholesalers sell them to the pharmaceutical concerns or to exporters. Saeed (1995) provides information on: consumption by manufacturing laboratories, consumption of crude drugs in (Pansara) markets of Pakistan, 1995 average price lists for several hundred medicinal plants, a market survey of local traditional medicines in the Baluchistan area, and consumption of crude drugs by the national pharmaceutical industry.
A variety of medicinal plants grow in the temperate hilly region of Pakistan. These plants gained importance in the allopathic system of medicine after Europeans investigated into their curative values. Plants such as Digitalis purpurea, Atropa belladonna, Colchicum sp. (Suranjan talkh), and many others were used in British and American pharmacopoeias, and a number of life-saving drugs are currently in use. This has resulted in the depletion of the existing stock and presently most of the plants can only be found scattered in remote areas.
Some other species are also endangered through indiscriminate exploitation by the collectors. For quite a few of these valuable plants, either the quality has deteriorated or they have become extinct. Development of propagation and regeneration technologies of medicinal plants in their natural habitat are essential for the conservation of this natural resource. Studies carried out by the Medicinal Plants Branch have revealed that temperate medicinal plants acquire perennial habits and therefore take more time to reach the stage of commercial exploitation.
The country's list of plants is quite long but not all of the plants are exploited commercially. A survey conducted by the Pakistan Forest Institute records 320 medicinal plants, growing in different ecological zones (RAPA, 1987). Saeed (1995) identifies 350 plants used in traditional medicine.
The actual supply/demand of herbs and medicinal plants is in the range of 20 000 tonnes per annum. About 14 000 tonnes of herbs were imported in 1989-1990 while about 106 tonnes of herbs and 3 083 tonnes of medicinal plants were exported in that year. During 1992, total world trade in medicinal plants was about US$171 234 million, of which 20.9 percent originated from countries in Asia and the pacific, Pakistan share was 0.5 percent of this amount (Saeed, 1995).
Table 2. The commercially most important medicinal plants collected from forests in Pakistan
Botanical name |
Part used |
Estimated quantities extracted annually (tonnes) |
Price (Rs/kg) |
Export potential |
Valeriana wallichii |
Roots |
300-400 |
40-50 |
About 150 t exported to Hong Kong and Germany for Rs.40-50 per kg. |
Adiantum capillus |
Whole plant |
100-125 |
6-8 |
About 15-20 t exported to Germany each year. Extraction can be increased up to 1 000 t/year. |
Polygonum amplexicule |
Roots |
40 |
10 |
- |
Zizyphus vulgaris |
Fruits |
30-40 |
10-12 |
- |
Myrtus communis |
Fruits and leaves |
40-45 |
40 |
- |
Viola serpens |
Flowers Leaves |
30 40 |
100-240 15 |
Up to 200 t can be collected easily |
Colchicum luteum |
Corms Seeds |
12 2 |
60 125-150 |
Entire quantity is exported to Germany, South Africa, France and Bulgaria. |
Podophyllum emodi |
Rhizomes and roots |
30-60 |
40-45 |
Exported to Belgium |
Mallotus philippensis |
Fruits |
4-5 |
40-50 |
- |
Paeonia emodi |
Rhizomes |
18 |
22 |
- |
Artemisia maritima |
Leaves/shoots |
100-150 |
15 |
- |
Carum copticum |
Seeds |
200 |
15 |
- |
Swertia chirata |
Twigs |
30 |
28 |
- |
Acorus calamus |
Roots |
10 |
24 |
- |
Berberis lycium |
Wood Roots |
600 120 |
10 14 |
- |
Hyocymaus niger |
Seeds |
2 |
20 |
- |
Sisymbrium irio |
Seeds |
50 |
10 |
- |
Carum carvi |
Seeds |
10 |
160-180 |
- |
Centella asiatica |
Whole plant |
12 |
32 |
- |
Aconitum chasmanthum |
Roots |
4 |
25 |
- |
Aconitum hetero phyllum |
Roots |
2 |
250 |
|
Dioscorea deltodea |
Rhizome |
230 |
16 |
Kurram Chemical purchases it @Rs.4-5 per kg. Also reported to be exported to Japan. |
Atropa acuminata |
Whole plant |
10 |
12 |
- |
Digitalis purpurea |
Whole plant |
10 |
10 |
- |
Adhatoda vasica |
Leaves |
20 |
5 |
- |
Cannabis sativa |
Whole plant |
20 |
10 |
- |
Withania coagulans |
Fruit |
125 |
5 |
Khyber Agency, Waziristan |
Withania sominfera |
Roots |
32 |
35 |
Naziampur, Peshawar. Exported to India |
Cassia fistula |
Pods |
150 |
15 |
Haripur and Gadoon |
Salix alba |
Bark |
10 |
18 |
Mardan, Peshawar Swabi, Rustam |
Urginea indica |
Bulbs |
6 |
30 |
Rustam, Kot, Buner |
Citrulus colocynthus |
Fruits |
12 |
9 |
Risalpur, Nazampur, Peshawar |
Ephedra nebrodemsis |
Twigs |
780 |
43 |
Baluchistan |
Source: RAPA (1994)
Several Glycyrrhiza spp. are a source of liquorice, which has a multitude of uses. It is used, for example, as an expectorant and anti-inflammatory but also as a stabilizing agent for foam in fire extinguishers, as well as for the flavouring of chocolate, beer, tobacco and toothpaste (Lewington, 1993). In 1992, the total value of international trade in liquorice was US$0.94 million, of which the bulk (55.1 percent) originated from China (24.1 percent), Pakistan (23.7 percent) and Afghanistan (7.3 percent) (Iqbal, 1995).
The seeds of Azadirachta indica, the so-called `enema seeds', contain 40 percent of deep yellow fatty oil known as "merges oil". It is effective in the treatment of leprosy and skin diseases and is used in pharmaceutical preparations, face cream, hair lotion, medicated soap, tooth paste, disinfectant and as an emulsifying agent in insecticides. The unrefined margosa oil is used as lamp oil. The seed cake is a good fertilizer and is said to keep white ants away from plants. All parts of the neem tree, including "neem toddy", which is the juice that exudes from the trunk spontaneously or through wounds, have numerous therapeutic uses in traditional medicine. The potential of this multipurpose tree has only begun to be exploited, although it grows abundantly in the plains of the Punjab, Sind, and the southern parts of the North West Frontier Province. There is a need to re-introduce neem as a multipurpose tree through social forestry programs of the Forest Department and to harness its potential for supplying raw material for industry. The leaves of Azadirachta indica are used by rural women as insect repellent. Layers of leaves are placed between woollen clothes to keep the moths away while storing them. The leaves also protect grain from grain pests during storage. At present there is no market for the product.
Perfumes and cosmetics
Essential oils of Anise, Caraway, Coriander, Fennel, Lavender, Spearmint and Rosemary are extensively used as flavors for domestic consumption and for export.
Consumption of essential oils in Pakistan has been estimated by the Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan and values are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Annual consumption of essential oils in Pakistan
Products |
Consumption (kg) |
Eucalyptus oil |
10 000 |
Pepper mint oil |
10 000 |
Menthol |
25 000 |
Lemon oil |
15 000 |
Orange oil |
15 000 |
Herbaceous oils |
1 000 |
Other oils |
10 000 |
Total |
86 000 |
Source: Saeed (1995)
Dying and tanning
The bark or "babul" of Acacia nilotica is the principal agent used in vegetable tanning of hides in Pakistan. The bark is obtained as a by-product when the trees are felled. It is separated from logs by beating them with wooden mallets and the strips are dried in the open and sent to tanneries. The proportion of bark to wood is 1:5 by weight and a plantation of 25 trees per acre, when 15 years old, may yield about five tonnes of bark (RAPA, 1994). The leather produced by babul bark possesses firmness and durability, but it exhibits harshness and is dark coloured Babul bark is bulky and its tannin content is comparatively low.
Recently, farmers in some parts of Punjab (Sargodha, Jhang and Faisalabad) have started raising babul plantations around their crops. They harvest the plants after two years and extract the bark. Thus the status of bark has shifted from being a by-product to being a main product. The bark is sold to the crushing plants at Rs.1.00 to 1.25 per kilogram. The crushing plants sell the crushed bark to the tanneries at Rs.1.75 per kilogram. About 210 kilograms of crushed bark are needed to produce 100 kilograms of leather (5 hides). The tanneries are concentrated in Punjab (Wazirabad, Qusur, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Daska and Pasrur). Total annual production of vegetable-tanned leather in the country is estimated at 40 000 tonnes. Annual consumption of babul bark is estimated at 84 000 tonnes. Potential production of the bark is more than that, but not all of it is currently extracted.
Henna of commerce is the dried leaf of Lawsonia inermis L., a shrub or small tree, which is indigenous to the area between Iran and northern India. The plants has been introduced widely throughout the tropics and sub-tropics as an ornamental (frequently as a fragrant hedge), for home use as a dyestuff and elsewhere as a commercial crop, notably in several North African countries (FAO, 1995).
Aqueous extraction of the dried leaf provides a dye which can range in colour from black, to red through to blonde (neutral). From ancient times, henna has been employed as a cosmetic dye for hair, skin and nails and it has acquired a particular significance in Islamic culture. More recently, there has been an increase in its usage as a hair dye in Western Europe and North America. Prior to the widespread availability of synthetic dyestuffs, henna was employed also as a dye for textiles and leather.
Pakistan is one of the main suppliers to the Middle East market. Prices for henna reflect international supply levels and differentials between grades. In the Gulf market, the value of black henna is generally twice as much as the price of red henna and during 1992 prices ranged from approximately US$700/tonnes for top grades of Indian and Pakistani black henna to US$250/tonnes for the lowest grades (FAO, 1995).
Cutch is the purified aqueous extract of the heartwood of the multipurpose tree, Acacia catechu Wild. This deciduous, thorny species grows up to 15 m high and is indigenous to the southern range of the Himalayas (extending in India as far south as Andhra Pradesh and Orissa), Myanmar and northern Thailand.
Processing cutch involves three stages: 1) Production of a crude extract "black catechu"; 2) Isolation of "Katha"; and 3) Solidification of the residue "cutch".
Black catechu has traditionally been employed in Pakistan for crude dyeing, leather tanning and in indigenous medicines. The further processed cutch is employed as a cheap brown dye and preservative for canvas, fishing nets and similar items and also as a tanning agent for leather. In more recent times, cutch has found use as a viscosity modifier in oil well drilling. It is composed mainly of catechu-tannic acid with catechin, catechu red, quercetin and a gum as minor components (FAO, 1995).
Pakistan is a major exporter of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) (FAO, 1995). This an annual herb is well adapted to semi-arid conditions in the tropics and sub-tropics. It is a thistle-like plant with a deep taproot, growing up to 120 cm high, with a branched stem and a flower head at the end of each branch. Safflower, also called "dyer's saffron", was formerly employed, as its synonym implies, as an inexpensive substitute for saffron in textile dyeing. The term "red tape" originates from the use of safflower to impart a pink-red colour to the tape employed to bind legal documents. The colour tone can be varied according to the mordant used through pink, red rose, crimson to scarlet. Today, dyestuff usage of safflower is limited to traditional applications in countries such as India. It is offered as a food colorant in some developed countries under the description of a "natural vegetable extract". Toxicological clearance has not yet been secured in the European Community for assignment of an "E number" as an approved natural colorant; nor is it listed under the Food and Drug Administration's permitted list of natural colours for foods and beverages.
Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials
Bhabar or Sabai (Eulaliopsis binata) is a tufted perennial grass. It grows on dry and bare sub-mountainous tracts in Torai Shinai (Kohat), Nizampur and Parang Ghar (Mohamad Agency) in the North-West Frontier Province. The grass is hardy, surviving both frost and drought and is light demanding. When carefully collected and free from weeds and foreign material, Sabai grass yields medium-quality writing paper. It is singularly homogenous in quality throughout the whole plant. Even the nodes are digestible and consequently it is reduced to a clean and regular pulp by simple digestion. Sabai grass is harvested annually in November and December, which is a tedious and low-paying work. Only poor people with no alternatives resort to this work. Yields vary from 20 to 75 maunds (748 - 2 805kg) per acre, depending upon locality, rainfall and intensity of management (RAPA, 1994). A person can earn Rs.25 to 30 per day. After harvesting, the grass is bundled and despatched to the only paper mill available in trucks. About 250 to 300 people are involved in supplying the mill.
The paper mill at Noqwshera uses Sabai grass in addition to Saccharum grass. The mill purchases 1 000 to 1 500 tonnes of the grass annually at Rs.750 per ton. The supplies come exclusively from the Parang Ghar area. The yield of good quality bleached pulp ranges from 33 to 35 percent (of the weight of raw material). The fibre length is about two millimetres (RAPA, 1994).
Another 500 to 600 tonnes of grass are sold each year in local markets at Rs.1.00 per kg, for use as carpeting in mosques (RAPA, 1994).
Mazri is the local name for dwarf palm (Nonnorrhops ritchieana). It is a gregarious, tufted, low-growing and shrubby palm, growing naturally in the North West Frontier Province, Baluchistan and the adjacent tribal belt along both sides of the Suleiman Range, from 600 to 1100 meters in elevation. Farmers in some parts of the North West Frontier Province have also started cultivating this palm in their agriculture fields between other crops.
Mazri leaves are used in a variety of everyday products, including mats, baskets, brooms, trays, hand fans, grain bins and cordage. Average annual production of raw mazri leaves in the country is 37 315 tonnes. It has been estimated that an average worker can process more than 0.5 tonnes of raw mazri leaves per year. About 65 000 people are involved in processing mazri leaves, 78 percent of them women (Iqbal, 1991).
The retail price of raw mazri leaves is about Rs.3.40 per kilogram with a total value of collected leaves reaching Rs.126 million annually. Although prices of the finished mazri products vary considerably, the estimated value of mazri leaves almost doubles after processing (Iqbal, 1991).
Because of indiscriminate and continuing overexploitation, mazri forests are disappearing in many places. The supply base is gradually shrinking and the incomes of families are threatened. Rehabilitation of mazri forests is, therefore, essential in order to maintain the supply base.
Branches of Tamarix dioica, locally known by the nomads as "lei", are used for making baskets. The branches are cut during July and August and stored for the rest of the year. An average household, consisting of five working members makes 2 000 baskets each year. The baskets are made without tools. The number of households involved has been estimated to be 300. Total annual production is estimated to 600 000 baskets, consuming 2 000 to 2 500 tonnes of raw materials each year.
The baskets are transported to the nearby towns where they are sold to the shopkeepers at an average price of Rs.5 each. This produces a revenue of Rs.3 million each year.
Exudates
Resin is obtained by tapping the chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) trees. Chir pine forests occur primarily in the Punjab (60 000 hectares), Azad Kashmir (60 000 hectares), and the North-West Frontier Province (80 000 hectares) (RAPA, 1994).
The French method of resin tapping, introduced in 1888, is still in use. Trees under 30 centimetres in diameter are not tapped. Trees between 30 and 57 centimetres are given 2 blazes. When a tree is tapped for the first time, a 20-centimeter broad cut is made about 15 centimeters above ground level. A thin sheet of iron, 15 centimeters long and 5 centimeters wide, is hammered into this cut to for a lip. Above the lip a 15 x 12 centimeters gash is made in the wood. This is called a "channel," or "blaze." An earthen pot is hung below the lip to collect the resin. The blaze is freshened every week. At each freshening, the length of blaze is increased by about 0.8 centimeters. The process continues for about 5 years, after which a new blaze is started about 15 centimeters to the left of the old one. At each freshening of the blaze, the resin from the clay pot goes into an empty kerosene tin. The tins are transported to roadside depots and from there to the resin processing factories. This method yields 1.5 to 2 kilograms of resin per tree each season.
The Government through its Forestry Departments controls resin extraction and processing. The average production of crude resin during the last 10 years was 4 132 tonnes.
Table 4. Production of crude resin in Pakistan (tonnes)
Year |
Azad Kashmir |
North West Frontier Province |
Punjab |
Total |
1981 |
2 697 |
1 350 |
1 200 |
5 247 |
1982 |
2 369 |
1 163 |
1 105 |
4 637 |
1983 |
2 371 |
1 714 |
937 |
4 022 |
1984 |
1 870 |
1 021 |
991 |
3 882 |
1985 |
1 448 |
780 |
1 320 |
3 548 |
1986 |
2 151 |
1 092 |
1 318 |
4 562 |
1987 |
2 098 |
887 |
1 659 |
4 644 |
1988 |
2 180 |
653 |
604 |
3 437 |
1989 |
2 318 |
887 |
- |
3 205 |
Average (1981-1989) |
2 167 |
950 |
1 142 |
4 132 |
Source: Amjad & Khan (1990)
Crude resin is processed to produce rosin and turpentine. The yield of rosin from crude resin is about 65 to 70 percent and turpentine 15 to 20 percent. At present, only one state-owned factory, at Haripur in the North-West Frontier Province is producing rosin and turpentine. The capacity of the factory at Haripur is 3 600 tonnes, but it is running at one-third capacity because of a shortage of resin. The wholesale prices of rosin and turpentine is Rs.28.82 per kilogram and Rs.27.08 per litter, respectively, at the factory gate. The importation of synthetic rosin, which is cheaper than domestic rosin, has further set back the processing plants and the closure of the Haripur factory is being considered (Amjad & Khan, 1990).
Gum collected from Acacia modest is locally known as "palls". Palls gum is eaten by women as a sweet. It is believed to restore vitality, particularly after childbirth.
The trees are growing in sub-mountainous tracts up to 1,200 masl. Production of the gum starts after four or five years of age, yielding about 0.06 kilograms of gum. Production increases with age until about 20 years, when it stabilizes at about 0.25 kilograms per tree per year. The gum oozes spontaneously from the stems and main branches in October and November and is then collected by hand (Iqbal, 1991).
A recent survey in the village of Sherawala (Haripur) found the number of Acacia modesta trees ranged between 2 and 200 per family with an average of 69. The quantity of gum obtained from these trees ranged from 1 to 20 kg per household (average 11.2 kilograms), of which 15 percent is estimated to be consumed within the household (Iqbal, 1991). The majority is sold for about Rs.60 per kilogram, generating an average revenue of Rs.571 per family. Production figures for the entire country are not available (RAPA, 1994).
Others
Soap-nut, known as "retha," is the fruit of the tree Sapindus mukrossi. Its pericarp contains saponin, which makes lather with water and is used as a substitute for soap. It is preferable to regular soap for washing certain articles such as flannel and silk clothes. Women use it as shampoo. The soap-nut tree is cultivated in sub-Himalayan tracts up to 1 200 masl. People in Haripur (Hazara) grow the tree in their courtyards and agricultural fields (RAPA, 1994).
The tree starts bearing when six to eight years old. It flowers between May and June and all the fruit ripens at once in November and December. The fruit is picked from the tree and dropped to the ground where it is gathered. Two people can collect the fruit of one tree in a single day. The wholesale price has risen from Rs.5 per kilogram in 1988 to Rs.10 per kilogram in 1990. The product is often sold while still on the tree at Rs.400 to 500 per tree. The purchaser is then responsible for collecting the fruits.
A recent survey in the village of Najafpur (Haripur) indicated that yields per tree are 50 to 100 kg (average 60.8 kg) and the number of bearing trees is between one and three per family (Iqbal, 1991). The number of families involved in collection is about 4 100. Total production in the country is estimated at 250 tonnes with a total value estimated to be Rs.2.5 million, based on an average wholesale price of Rs.10 per kilogram. (RAPA, 1994).
Root bark of walnut (Juglans regia), and sometimes even the stem bark is frequently used in the country as a tooth cleaner, particularly by women, as it imparts a pinkish colour to the lips. However, removal of the bar can injure the trees with fatal consequences. Moreover, it is suspected that the bark is used in preparing fake tea, which is harmful to the health. For this reason extraction of walnut bark has been banned by the government. It is still extracted by forest dwellers, however, for domestic use and for sale to visitors. Prior to the ban, the bark was exported to the Middle East (RAPA, 1994).
ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS
Honey and beeswax
Honey collected from wild beehives is an important source of nutrition and income for forest dwellers in the country. Between 55 and 65 tonnes of honey are collected each year in the country from wild beehives by approximately 15 000 persons (RAPA, 1994).
Traditional beekeeping by rearing colonies of Oriental bees (Apis cercana) in earthen pots and hollow logs fixed in the walls of the houses is popular among women living in remote forest areas in the north and north-west parts of the country. The total number of these beehives is 35 000 to 40 000, producing about 50 tonnes of honey. The honey is sold to local grocers at Rs.60 to 80 per kilogram. An average colony yields 4 to 5 kilograms of honey, but 35 to 45 percent of the colonies are sub-standard and produce little or no honey (RAPA, 1994).
Iqbal (1991), observed that Oriental bees do not colonise the hives as frequently as they did 10 to 12 years ago, possibly because the local bees are unable to compete with the 20 000 colonies of European bees (A. mellifera) brought by the Afghan refugees into the tracts. Consequently, natural populations of the local bees have dwindled. To overcome the problem and to augment income of the rural women, Iqbal recommended that modern beekeeping with European bees should be introduced among the traditional beekeepers.
The entire production of honey is used within the country as food and in a number of medicinal formulations. Although modern beekeeping is gaining popularity in the country, the demand for honey cannot be met and honey worth Rs.3 to 4 million is imported each year (RAPA, 1994).
Other non-edible animal products
Silkworm rearing on mulberry leaves obtained from high-trunk trees grown in government plantations and farmlands is an old cottage industry in many rural areas. Only one crop of silkworms is reared during the spring season. About 40 000 packets (one packet contains 20 000 eggs) of silkseed imported from Korea and Japan are distributed each year among silkworm rearers, by both public and private agencies. About 13 000 families are involved in silkworm rearing. Total production of dry cocoons in the country is about 245 tonnes (RAPA, 1987).
Up to 600 kilograms of mulberry leaves are required to rear silkworms obtained from one packet of silkseed. Thus, 22 000 to 24 000 tonnes of mulberry leaves are consumed each year. Iqbal (1991) has reported that the value of the leaves required to rear one packet of silk seed is Rs. 200 to 300. The total value, therefore, is about Rs.10 million, based on an average price of Rs.250. Net return to the rearers is estimated at Rs.2 140 per packet (Iqbal, 1991), generating a total net income of Rs.45.6 million to the silkworm rearers in the country.
Silkworm rearing techniques are generally primitive. Consequently the yield is low. Moreover, a recent survey by Iqbal (1991) observed that silkworm rearing is mainly done by women. However, the extension staff of the sericulture sections of the Forest Departments are all men, who are unable to communicate directly with the women silkworm rearers. Therefore, there is an obvious opportunity to improve extension services by employing women extension workers.
The entire production of cocoons is processed locally on primitive hand-reeling machines. The raw silk is used as weft in the local weaving industry. The warp is imported.
REFERENCES
Amjad and Khan. 1990; Records of Rosin and Turpentine factory, Haripur
FAO. 1993. Medicinal and aromatic Plants in Asia. Proceedings. RAPA publication 1993/19. Bangkok, Thailand.
FAO. 1994. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (1994). Non-wood forest products in Asia. Bangkok, Thailand.
FAO. 1995. Natural colourants and dyestuffs. A Review of Production, Markets and Development Potential. by C.L. Green. Non-wood Forest Products, 4. FAO. Rome.
Iqbal, M. 1991. NTFPs: a study on their income generation potential for rural women in North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Pakistan. Planning and Development Department, Govt. of NWFP and ILO. Peshawar.
Iqbal, M. 1993. International trade in NWFP: an Overview. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Iqbal, M. 1995. International trade in non-wood forest products in the Asia Pacific Region. Beyond Timber: Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions on Non-Wood Forest Products in Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of a Regional Expert Consultation, 28 November-2 December 1994, RAPA, Bangkok, Thailand.
Khan, S. A. 1985. An analysis of supply situation of pharmaceutical and medicinal herbs in Pakistan. Export Promotion Bureau, Government of Pakistan, Karachi.
Khan, A. A. and S.H. Zaidi. 1989. Propagation and regeneration technology of pharmaceutical and medicinal plants. Biological Sciences Research Division. Bulletin No. 8. Pakistan Forest Institute. Peshawar.
RAPA. 1987. Forest based rural enterprises in Pakistan. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Bangkok.
RAPA. 1994. Non-wood forest products in Asia. Regional office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Bangkok.
Richardson, S.D. 1995. Non-wood forest products: a regional overview. beyond timber: social, economic and cultural dimensions on non-wood forest products in Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of a Regional Expert Consultation, 28 November-2 December 1994, RAPA, Bangkok, Thailand.
Reid, Collins and Associates. 1990. Forest and rangeland products in pakistan. In association with Silviconsult Ltd., Sweden.. Forestry Sector Master Plan, Pakistan.
Reid, Collins and Associates. 1990. Upland forests of Pakistan. Canada. In association with Silviconsult Ltd., Sweden.. Forestry Sector Master Plan, Pakistan.
Reid, Collins and Associate,1992. Forest policy, tenure and legislation. Canada. In association with Silviconsult Ltd., Sweden. Forestry Sector Master Plan, Pakistan.
Saeed, A. 1995. Medicinal, culinary and aromatic plants in pakistan. proceedings of the international expert meeting on medicinal, culinary and aromatic plants in the Near East. Cairo, Egypt, 19-21 May 1997.
Tenth World Forestry Congress. 1991. Country Report: Pakistan.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report has been realized in support to the FAO Forest Resource Assessment 2000. The content is mainly based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome and on information collected by Ms Sabra, American University of Beirut, Lebanon. Additional information was provided by Mr. Ghulam Mohd Malikya, Conservator Wildlife and NWFP, Peshawar, Pakistan.
Additional information on NWFP in Pakistan would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.
QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF PAKISTAN
PRODUCT |
RESOURCE |
ECONOMIC VALUE |
REFERENCES | |||||||
Category |
Import-ance |
Trade name |
Species |
Part used |
Habitat |
Source |
Utilisa-tion |
Quantity, value |
Remarks |
References |
1, 2, 3 |
F, P, O |
W, C |
N, I |
|||||||
Plants and plant products |
||||||||||
Food |
1 |
Walnut |
Juglans regia |
F |
W, C |
N |
Annual total production of 20 000 t (Iqbal, 1991) worth Rs200 million (RAPA, 1994) |
Iqbal, 1991 RAPA, 1994 | ||
Wild pomegranate |
Punica granatum |
fr |
F |
W |
N |
Total annual production of 250 t |
RAPA, 1994 | |||
Carum carvi |
fr, st |
N |
Total annual production of 300 t |
RAPA, 1994 | ||||||
Morels |
Morchella esculenta; M. conica; M. anqusticipt |
pl |
F |
W |
N, I |
Annual production of 50 t |
RAPA, 1994 | |||
Vegetable |
Bauhinia variegata |
fl |
O |
W |
N |
Total annual production of30 t |
RAPA, 1994 | |||
Moringa oleifera |
fl |
O |
C |
N |
Total annual production of 10 t |
RAPA, 1994 | ||||
Dryopteris filix-mas |
pl |
F |
W |
N |
Total annual production of 10 t |
RAPA, 1994 | ||||
Wild persimmon |
Diospyros lotus |
fr |
F |
W |
N |
Annual production of 80 t (iqbal, 1991) with an annual value of Rs.3. million (RAPA, 1994) |
Iqbal, 1991 RAPA, 1994 |
Food |
1 |
Pine nuts |
Pinus gerardiana |
se |
Annual production of 21 000 t |
Iqbal, 1991 | ||||
Pine nuts |
Pinus pinea |
se |
F |
Total annual value of Rs.37.5 million |
Iqbal, 1991 | |||||
Dying and tanning |
2 |
Henna |
Lawsonia inermis L |
lf |
C |
N, I |
Prices reach US$250/t (lowest grade) up to US$700/t for "black henna" |
FAO, 1995 | ||
Acacia nilotica |
ba |
F |
W |
N |
Total annual production of 40 000 t. |
RAPA, 1994 | ||||
Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials |
2 |
Mazri leaves |
Nonnorrhops ritchieana |
le |
F |
W, C |
N, I |
Average annual production of 37 315t |
RAPA, 1994 Iqbal, 1991 | |
Tamarix dioica |
st |
F |
Total annual production of 600 000 baskets, consuming 2 000 to 2 500 t of raw material |
RAPA, 1994 | ||||||
Exudates |
2 |
Pinus roxburghii |
re |
F |
W |
N, I |
Average annual production of crude resin (1981-1989) of 4 132 t |
RAPA, 1994 | ||
Animals and animal products | ||||||||||
Honey, beeswax |
1 |
Apis cerana |
ho |
W |
N |
Annual production of 55-65 t |
RAPA, 1994 | |||
Other non-edible animal products |
2 |
Silk cocoons |
O |
C |
N |
Production of 245 t of dry cocoons |
On mulberry leaves |
IRAPA, 1994 |
Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - Others: Trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international
6 Pakistan Rupes Rs100 = US$1.57 (exchange rate of16 August 2001).