INTRODUCTION
Main Non-Wood Forest Products
The most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) of Syria are edible fruits (e.g. Ceratonia siliqua, Prunus amygdalus), medicinal plants (e.g Crataegus monogyna, Matricaria aurea and aromatic plants (e.g. Laurus nobilis, Myrtus communisr).
Other NWFP include tannins and dyestuffs (e.g. Rhus sp., Quercus infectoria, Rubia sp.,), ornamental plants (e.g. Daphne oleifolia), edible mushrooms and truffles, exudates, honey and bushmeat.
General information
Syria has a diverse base of flora and genetic resources. About 3 459 species belonging to 865 genus and 131 families grow in Syria. The production of non-wood forest products (NWFP) in Syria during the period 1990 - 1995 is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Production (in tonnes) and value (in Syrian Lira7) of NWFP in Syria
Product |
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 | ||||
Pro-duction |
Value |
Pro-duction |
Value |
Pro-duction |
Value |
Pro-duction |
Value | |
Myrtus branches |
200 |
500 |
168 |
420 |
189 |
472 |
105 |
315 |
Magorana leaves |
100 |
1 500 |
72 |
1 080 |
163 |
2 445 |
103 |
1 751 |
Gly-cyrrhiza roots |
1 200 |
18 000 |
1 142 |
17 130 |
1 228 |
20 876 |
1 056 |
19 008 |
Carob pods |
10 |
120 |
8 |
96 |
7 |
105 |
8 |
120 |
Rhus sp. |
150 |
4 500 |
89 |
2 670 |
105 |
3 150 |
82 |
2 460 |
Grape fruits and leaves |
50 |
1 500 |
8 |
240 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Pistacia fruits |
10 |
150 |
- |
- |
4 |
60 |
- |
- |
Ferns |
5 |
25 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Humus |
5 000 |
1 500 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Total |
6 725 |
27 795 |
1 487 |
21 636 |
1 696 |
27 108 |
1 354 |
23 654 |
Source: Wahbe (1997)
PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCT
Food
Edible fruits have been traditionally used in Syria as a source of food. Pistacia palaestina (edible fruits sold by herbalists in Lattakia for SL40/kg), Ceratonia siliqua (the pulp is sweet and contains anti-diarrhoea properties and the fruits are sold by herbalists in cities for an average price of SL45/kg) and Prunus amygdalus (the dry seeds of these fruits contain and oil which is much valued by consumers and the price of a kg of dry seeds is about SL1 100) are the most common edible fruits used by Syrian people. (Al-Hakim, 1994)
A socio-economic study, recently carried out, revealed the importance of Pistacia atlantica for local communities. Its fruits are collected and eaten fresh or roasted. The fruits are also used in a softdrink called bareeka. Furthermore, oil is extracted from the seeds, which has a value of SL0.35/kg (Mona, 2001).
Juglans regia (walnut) and Castanea sativa (chestnut) are also known in Syria for their edible nuts.
Edible mushrooms and truffles (e.g. Coprinus spp., Morchella spp. and Helvella spp.) are collected. According to Al-Hakim (1994) the truffles are sold on the market for SL800-2 000/kg.
Perfumes and cosmetics
In addition to medicinal properties (anti-rheumatism), the oil of the Laurier Laurus nobilis is used in the production of soap, especially among the populations of Kassab. It is estimated that 50 tonnes of soap are produced in Kassab each year. Other soap factories can be found, especially in Aleppo, but these use synthetic products instead of the butter of Laurier.
The fruits of Rhus coriaria are rich in organic acids and often used in several cooking recipes. They are sold for SL70/kg.
Medicines
The medicinal aromatic and toxic wild plants constitute a high proportion of the flora in Syria. Many plants such as Matricaria sp, Thymus sp, Artimisia sp., Fungi and truffle are collected directly from nature by rural people for use as traditional medicines. The most important wild and cultivated medicinal and aromatic plants and their production are listed in tables 2 and 3 in the annex.
According to Wahbe (1997) the government and the private sector have developed a programme to conserve medicinal plants through:
· Formulation of a clear policy for production, transport and marketing based on the local and international needs of medicinal plants raw material.
· Coordination between all sectors (ministries, organizations, universities, research centers and private agencies) dealing with medicinal plants.
· Survey of medicinal and aromatic genetic resources and establishment of gene resource banks.
· Establishment of pharmaceutical and insecticide industries based on medicinal, aromatic and toxic plants.
· Supporting research on medicinal plants, training of technical staff and improving production techniques.
· Formulation of extension programmes for rural people on the conservation and importance of medicinal and aromatic plants.
· Cultivation of medicinal plants.
· Protection of endangered species.
· Establishment of botanical gardens for breeding of medicinal and aromatic plants.
Medicinal and aromatic plants are threatened by the flowing factors:
· Degradation of forest by fires, overgrazing, removal of trees for fuel and the lack of management plants;
· Urban expansion in forest areas;
· Scarcity of water;
· Unsustainable harvesting of wild medicinal plants.
In 1985, the Productive Project Administration (PPA), which is a Project of the Ministry of Defense, started jointly with the University of Damascus to deal specifically with medicinal plants and aims at providing the Army and the Syrian public with products that have scientifically proven beneficial effect on their health. The work of PPA on medicinal plants has been receiving prestigious recognitions within and outside Syria (ISO 9002 is being awarded to PPA in 1994). Today the production of tea bags has reached an amount of 600 000/year. More than 85 species are currently being used which are mostly indigenous to the region. The plant material is provided to PPA through a broad network of farmers and collectors spread throughout the country (pers. com. S. Padulosi and R. Khalil, 24/07/2001).
Table 2.The most important wild medicinal and aromatic plants used in Saudi Arabia
Species |
Price (SL/kg) |
Maticaria Chamomilla |
400-600 |
Matricaria aurea |
- |
Thymus sp. |
400 |
Salvia |
250 |
Micromeria myrtifolia |
250 |
Majorana sp. |
250 |
Athea sp. |
250 |
Glycyrrhiza sp. |
500 |
Paronychia argentea |
400 |
Lippia citrio dora |
400 |
Laurus nobilis |
250 |
Artemisia sp. |
400 |
Equisetum |
120 |
Ceratonia siliqua |
70 |
Cynara cardunculus |
70 |
Lepidium sativum |
50 |
Foeniculum sp. |
50 |
Fungi |
200 |
Truffle |
400-1000 |
Anabasis syriaca |
250 |
Amygdalus communis |
1000 |
Rosa damascena |
600 |
Carthamos binctoria |
900 |
Acacia senegal |
900 |
Astragallus gummifera |
200 |
Celtis tournejortii |
- |
Source: Wahbe (1997)
Dying and tanning
The tannin producing species in Syria are Rhus coriaria, Rhus cotinus and Quercus infectoria. The tannins of Rhus coriaria and Quercus infectoria are exploited in Syria in the industrial sector for the treatment of leather. Tannins from other species (such as Chestnut, Oak, and Walnut trees) are used on a small scale in traditional medicine (Al-Hakim, 1994).
The most important dyestuffs of Syria are taken from the following species: Rubia tinctorum, Rubia aucheri, and Rubia tenuifolia. Herbalists in the cities of Lattakia and Damascus sell the roots that contain the natural colorants (Al-Hakim, 1994).
Exudates
Pinus brutia has an economical importance in Syria; the amount of resin (oleoresins) that can be extracted from one tree is 2.5 kg. Oleoresin is composed of rosin, which is used in soap industry, and turpentine (Madi, 1999).
The gum tragacanth extracted from Astragalus sp. has many uses due to its capacity to form thick viscous gel that is used as an important pharmaceutical application and as an effective stabilizer for culinary uses. It mainly grows in semi-arid, mountainous regions of Syria (FAO, 1992).
ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS
Honey and beeswax (Stotz, 1992)
Honey is a specially recognized NWFP in Syria. It is regarded not so much as a foodstuff but as a tonic and remedy for illness.
In Syria, beekeeping is principally a supplementary source of income. Most beekeepers are farmers, but many government employees such as teachers or agricultural extension officers also keep bees. It is not unusual that the income from beekeeping exceeds their salaries.
Traditionally bees are kept in earthenware pipes, but these are being superseded by Langstroth (movable frame) hives.
The principal honey bee fodder species of Syrian forests are: Crataegus monomyna, Castanea sativa, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Foeniculum vulgare, Lavandula stoechas, Hedera helix. Melissa officinalis, Origanum syriacum, Thymus sp., Euphorbia sp., Calycotome villosa.
Table 3. The development of the number of beehives and their production on the national scale from 1979 to 1991
Year |
Beehives |
Production (in tonnes) |
Production (in tonnes) | ||
Local type |
Modern type |
Total |
Honey |
Wax | |
1979 |
102 251 |
20 093 |
122 344 |
359 |
47 |
1980 |
107 218 |
26 819 |
134 037 |
688 |
50 |
1981 |
112 299 |
29 511 |
141 810 |
501 |
47 |
1982 |
109 226 |
34 463 |
143 689 |
623 |
61 |
1983 |
105 045 |
43 218 |
148 263 |
695 |
67 |
1984 |
96 258 |
50 750 |
147 008 |
683 |
65 |
1985 |
79 110 |
52 932 |
132 042 |
513 |
47 |
1986 |
78 625 |
49 869 |
128 494 |
533 |
40 |
1087 |
67 631 |
47 624 |
115 255 |
590 |
|
1988 |
72 666 |
62 582 |
135 248 |
800 |
|
1989 |
71 788 |
63 149 |
134 937 |
647 |
|
1990 |
64 191 |
73 116 |
137 307 |
518 |
|
1991 |
60 366 |
82 234 |
142 500 |
678 |
Source: Al-Hakim (1994)
REFERENCES
Al-Hakim, W. 1994. Rapport sur les produits forestiers non-ligneux dans les forêts Syriennes (surtout dans le Département de Lattakia de Qunaitra). Forêts et Sécurité Alimentaire dans les Régions Méditerrannéenne et Moyen-Orientale. FAO (GCP/INT/539/ITA).
FAO 1992. Tragacanth gum [published in FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 34, 1986]. In Compendium of Food Additive Specifications. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 5 (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Combined Specifications from 1st through the 37th Meetings, 1956-1990). Rome.
Güler, M. 1995. Mission report on edible mushrooms cultivation in forest villages in Syria. Forestry and Food Security in Mediterranean and Near-East Region. FAO (GCP/INT/539/ITA).
Madi, S. 1999. Non wood forest products in Syria. Expert meeting on developing and coordinating the activities for non-wood forest products in the Near east, FAO. Beirut, 1999.
Mona, N. 2001. Socio-Economic study of Pistacia atlantica in Syria. A consultant report prepared for the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. Draft version.
Stotz, D. 1993. Beekeeping in Syria. A GTZ Financed Promotion of Beekeeping in Syria. Beekeeping & Development, Number 26, March 1993.
Wahbe, T. 1997. Report on Syria. Paper submitted to The International Expert Meeting on Medicinal, Culinary and Aromatic Plants in the Near East (Cairo, 19-21 May, 1997). Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform, Department of Agricultural Research.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report has been realized in support to the FAO Forest Resource Assessment 2000. The content is mainly based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome and on information collected by Ms Sabra, American University of Beirut, Lebanon. Additional information was provided Mr. Tom Bazuin (IPGRI/Aleppo).
Additional information on NWFP in Syria would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.
QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF SYRIA
Product |
Resource |
Economic value |
||||||||
Category |
Impor-tance |
Trade name Generic term |
Species |
Part used |
Habitat |
Source |
Destination |
Quantity, value |
Remarks |
References |
1, 2, 3 |
F, P, O |
W, C |
N, I |
|||||||
Plants and plant products | ||||||||||
Food |
1 |
Carob |
Ceratonia siliqua |
fr |
N,I |
Annual production of 8 t worth SL120 000 in 1993 |
Wahbe, 1997 | |||
Pistachia plaestina |
nu |
N,I |
Annual production of 4 t worth SL60 000 1993 |
Al-Hakim,1994 | ||||||
Medicines |
1 |
Liquorice |
Glycyrrhiza glabra |
ro |
N,I |
Annual production of 1 056 t worth SL19 million in 1993 |
Wahbe, 1997 | |||
Perfumes, cosmetics |
1 |
Myrtus communis |
le |
N |
Annual production of 105 t worth SL315 000 1993 |
Wahbe, 1997 | ||||
Dying, Tanning |
2 |
Rhus coriaria |
fr,le |
N |
Annual production of 82 t worth SL2 460 000 in 1993 |
Wahbe, 1997 | ||||
Exudates |
2 |
Pinus brutia |
re |
N |
Production of 2.5 kg resin per tree |
Madi, 1999 | ||||
Animals and animal products | ||||||||||
Honey, beeswax |
2 |
ho |
W,C |
N |
Production of 678 t in 1991 |
Al-Hakim, 1994 |
Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey; la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - Others: Trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international
7 US$1 = Syrian Lira (SL) 47,6 (mean exchange rate between 1/1/1990 and 31/12/1993). Current exanche rate as of 16/8/2001: US$1 = SL53.5.