EXPERTS
Eric Ategbo
Universite Nationale du
Benin
Cotonou, Benin
Stephanie Atkinson (Unable to attend)
Mc Master
University
Hamilton, Canada
Nahla Houalla Baba
Universite Americaine de
Beyrouth
Riad el Solh, Lebanon
Anna Ferro-Luzzi
National Institute of Research for
Food and Nutrition
Rome, Italy
Zhi Qian He (Unable to attend)
Sun Yat-sen
University of Medical Sciences
Guangzhou, China
Eric Jequier
Instutut de Physiologie
Lausanne,
Switzerland
Joyce Kanyangwa-Luma
World Food Programme Country
Office
Islamabad, Pakistan
Eileen Kennedy
167 Yarnick Road
Great Falls,
United States
Sook He Kim (Unable to attend)
Ewha Womans
University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Janet King
University of California -
Davis
Davis, United States
Surat Komindr
Ramathibodi Hospital
Bangkok,
Thailand
Ismail Noor
University of Kebangsaan
Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
Narsinga Rao
National Institute of
Nutrition
Hyderabad, India
Patric Ritz
Universite dAngers
Angers,
France
Irwin Rosenberg
Tufts University
Boston, United
States
Benjamin Torun
Instituto de Nutrición de
Centro America y Panama (INCAP)
Guatemala City, Guatemala
Ricardo Uauy
Instituto de Nutrición y
Tecnologia de los Alimentos (INTA)
Santiago, Chile
Este Vorster
Potchefstroomse
Universiteit
Potchefstroom, South Africa
Klaas Westerterp
University of
Maastricht
Maastricht, Netherlands
Roger Whitehead
Dunn Nutrition Centre
Cambridge,
United Kingdom
TECHNICAL ADVISORS TO SECRETARIAT
Nancy Butte
Baylor College of Medicine
Houston,
United States
Joop Van Raaij
Agricultural University of
Waginengen
Waginengen, Netherlands
OBSERVERS
Venkatesh Iyengar
International Atomic Energy
Agency
Vienna, Austria
Hiroshi Kashiwazaki
National Institute of Health and
Nutrition
Tokyo, Japan
Sonya Rabeneck
Standing Committee on
Nutrition
Geneva, Switzerland
Beat Schurch (Unable to attend)
Nestle
Foundation
Lausanne, Switzerland
SECRETARIAT
Barbara Burlingame
FAO-ESNA
Rome, Italy
Graeme Clugston (Unable to attend)
World Health
Organization
Geneva, Switzerland
Mercedes de Onis
World Health
Organization
Geneva, Switzerland
Gina Kennedy
FAO-ESNA, Consultant
Rome,
Italy
Prakash Shetty
FAO-ESNA
Rome, Italy
Kraisid Tontisirin
FAO-ESND
Rome, Italy
Robert Weisell
FAO-ESNA
Rome, Italy
MEMBERS OF WORKING GROUPS, 27 JUNE TO 5 JULY 2001, FAO HEADQUARTERS, ROME, ITALY
1. WORKING GROUP ON ENERGY (AND PROTEIN) REQUIREMENTS OF INFANTS AND PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Chairperson
Nancy Butte
USDA/ARS Childrens Nutrition
Research Center
Houston, United States
Members
Kathryn Dewey
University of California -
Davis
Davis, United States
Erik Diaz
Instituto de Nutrición y
Tecnología de los Alimentos (INTA)
Santiago, Chile
Mercedes de Onis
World Health
Organization
Geneva, Switzerland
Cutberto Garza
United Nations University
Ithaca,
United States
Michael Goran
University of Southern
California
Los Angeles, United States
Paul Pencharz
The Hospital for Sick
Children
Toronto, Canada
Benjamin Torun
Instituto de Nutrición de
Centro America y Panama (INCAP)
Guatemala City, Guatemala
2. WORKING GROUP ON ENERGY AND PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS OF PREGNANCY AND LACTATION
Chairperson
Joop Van Raaij
Agricultural University of
Waginengen
Waginengen, Netherlands
Members
Lindsay Allen
University of California -
Davis
Davis United States
Corazon Barba
Food and Nutrition Research Institute
(FNRI)
Metro Manila, Phillipines
Elisabet Forsum
University of
Linkoping
Linkoping, Sweden
Andrew Prentice
Dunn Clinical Nutrition
Centre
Cambridge, United Kingdom
3. WORKING GROUP ON METHODOLOGY FOR ENERGY BALANCE AND ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Chairperson
Anna Ferro-Luzzi
Instituto Nazionale della
Nutrizione
Rome, Italy
Members
Steve Heymsfield
St. Lukes Roosevelt Hospital
New
York, United States
Prakash Shetty
FAO-ESNA
Rome, Italy
Robert Weisell
FAO-ESNA
Rome, Italy
Klaas Westerterp
Maastricht
University
Maastricht, Netherlands
4. WORKING GROUP ON PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS
Chairperson
Denis Bier
Baylor College of Medicine
Houston,
United States
Members
Peter Furst
Universitat Hohenheim
Stuttgart,
Germany
Peter Garlick
Health Sciences Center
Stony Brook,
United States
Alan Jackson
University of
Southampton
Southampton, United Kingdom
Anura Kurpad
St. Johns Medical
College
Bangalore, India
Joe Millward
University of Surrey
Guildford,
United Kingdom
Paul Pencharz
The Hospital for Sick
Children
Toronto, Canada
Niels Raiha
Lund University
Malmo,
Sweden
William Rand
Tufts University
Boston, United
States
Peter Reeds (Unable to attend)
University of
Illinois
Urbana, United States
Daniel Tomé (Observer)
Institut National
Agronomique Paris-Grignon
Paris, France
Benjamin Torun
Instituto de Nutrición de
Centro America y Panama (INCAP)
Guatemala City, Guatemala
Ricardo Uauy
Instituto de Nutrición
Technologia de Alimentos (INTA)
Santiago, Chile
John Waterlow
15 Hillgate Street
London, United
Kingdom
Vernon Young
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Cambridge, United States
5. WORKING GROUP ON ANALYTICAL ISSUES IN FOOD ENERGY AND COMPOSITION. ENERGY IN FOOD LABELLING, INCLUDING REGULATORY AND TRADE ISSUES
Chairperson
Ghulam Sarwar Gilani
Health Canada
Ottowa,
Canada
Members
Barbara Burlingame
FAO-ESNA
Rome, Italy
Malcolm Fuller
107 Quaker Path
Stony Brook,
United States
Peter Jones
McGill University
Montreal,
Canada
Geoff Livesey
Independent Nutrition
Logic
Wymondham, United Kingdom
Paul Moughan
Massey University
Palmerston North,
New Zealand
Peter Pellett
University of
Massachusetts
Amherst, United States
Daniel Tomé (Observer)
Institut National
Agronomique Paris-Grignon
Paris, France
Energy Background Paper No. 1
Andrew
Prentice
Macronutrients as sources of food
energy
Reviewer: Jean Pierre Flatt
Energy Background Paper No. 2
Geoff
Livesey
Analytical issues related to food energy and food composition,
energy in food labeling - including regulatory and trade
issues
Reviewers: Janis Baines, Janine Lewis, Penelope
Warwick
Energy Background Paper No. 3
Anna
Ferro-Luzzi
The conceptual framework for estimating food energy
requirements
Reviewers: Paul Haggarty, Andreu Palou, Robert
Weisell
Energy Background Paper No. 4
Nancy
Butte
Energy requirements of infants
Reviewers:
Peter Sauer, Jonathan Wells
Energy Background Paper No. 5
Benjamin
Torun
Energy requirements of children and adolescents (with
addendum)
Reviewers: Margaret Livingstone, Virginia
Stallings
Energy Background Paper No. 6
Prakash
Shetty
Energy requirements of adults
Reviewers:
Michael Goran, Dale Schoeller, Yves Schutz
Energy Background Paper No. 7
7a: Joop van
Raaij (Initial draft)
Energy requirements during pregnancy and
lactation
Reviewers: Nancy Butte, Janet King
7b:
Nancy Butte and Janet King (Final version)
Reviewers:
Kathryn Dewey, Elisabet Forsum
Energy Background Paper No. 8
Susan B. Roberts
and Gerry E. Dallal
Energy requirements and
ageing
Reviewers: Elisabet Rothenberg, Jane Wuu
Energy Background Paper No. 9
Marinos
Elia
Insights into energy requirements in
disease
Reviewers: Bruce Bistrian, Eileen Gibney
Energy Background Paper No. 10
Anura V.
Kurpad, Sumithra Muthayya and Mario Vaz
Consequences of inadequate food energy and negative energy
balance in adults
Reviewer: Nick Norgan
Energy Background Paper No. 11
Ricardo Uauy and
Erik Diaz
Consequences of food energy excess and positive energy
balance
Reviewers: William Dietz, James Hill
Energy Background Paper No. 12
Mario Vaz, Nadine
Karaolis, Alizon Draper, Prakash Shetty
A compilation of energy costs
of physical activities
Reviewers: Gerald Spurr, K.
Satyanarayana, Angela Polito
Energy Background Paper No. 13
Jeya
Henry
Basal metabolic rate studies in humans: measurement and
application
Reviewers: Anna Ferro-Luzzi, Kevin Acheson,
Philip James, George Bray
Energy Background Paper No. 14
Nick
Norgan
Laboratory and field measures of body
composition
Reviewers: Paul Deurenberg, Tim Lohman, Cameron
Chumelea
Energy Background Paper No. 15
Ingrid
Coles-Rutishauser
Laboratory and field measures of dietary
intake
Reviewers: Elisabet Wirfaelt, Wija van
Staveren
Energy Background Paper No. 16
James
Levine
Measurement of energy expenditure
Reviewers:
Anna Ferro-Luzzi, Klaas Westerterp, Eric Ravussin, Catherine
Geissler
Opinion Paper No. 1
Michael
Goran
Estimating energy requirements: regression based prediction
equations or multiples of resting metabolic rate
Opinion Paper No. 2
Penelope Warwick & Janis
Baines
Point of view: Energy factors for food labelling and other
purposes should be derived in a consistent fashion for all food
components
Opinion Paper No. 3
Cutberto
Garza
Effect of infection on energy requirements of infants and
children
POST-CONSULTATION SOLICITED DOCUMENTS
Document No. 1
Sally Grantham-McGregor and H.
Heningham-Baker
Review of the evidence linking protein and energy to
mental development
Document No. 2
Tim Cole and Jeya Henry
The Oxford
Brookes BMR database-a reanalysis
Document No. 3
Manuel
Ramirez-Zea
Validation of three predictive equations for basal
metabolic rate
Document No. 4
Anna Ferro-Luzzi
A
review of Tim Cole and Manuel Ramirez-Zeas reports on BMR predictive
equations
The Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation on Energy and Protein Requirements, which met at FAO in Rome in 1981, concluded that - wherever possible - estimates of energy requirements should be based on measurements of energy expenditures rather than on energy intakes. It also decided that there would be many advantages in expressing the various components of total energy expenditure (TEE) as multiples of the basal metabolic rate (BMR). BMR is the most dominant component of TEE, and this is the primary reason for expressing the energy requirement (primarily BMR plus energy requirements for physical activity) as a multiple of the BMR. As a result, measurements of BMR and the methods to predict BMR have gained increased significance in estimating human energy requirements.
Dr J. Durnin of Glasgow University, the United Kingdom, made an extensive examination of the scientific literature and produced a background document for the 1981 expert consultation, which laid the foundations for the use of the BMR factorial approach to estimate TEE and energy requirements. It was noted that, while attempts had been made to carry out post hoc analysis of the existing data on BMRs in the past at the express request of FAO (Quenouille et al., 1951), subsequent FAO and FAO/WHO committees had not followed up on this approach of using BMR as the starting point to assess human energy requirements. On the recommendation of the 1981 expert consultation, it was decided to undertake a more comprehensive analysis of the available data on BMRs worldwide in order to generate predictive equations that could be used in the report. In a relatively short period following the 1981 expert consultation, FAO initiated a thorough research of the available literature for robust BMR data in order to construct a series of regression equations by sex and age groups. These equations and the related scientific papers appeared as a supplement of Human Nutrition: Clinical Nutrition (Volume 39C, Supplement 1, 1985). The new database contained 7 173 data points drawn from 114 published studies. Shortcomings in the data sets were duly noted, predominantly the over- or underprediction of BMR, and these were viewed primarily as the result of a lack of ethnic and geographical representation in the data.
The BMR predictive equations were used for the first time in the 1985 Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Report on Energy and Protein Requirements and have gained considerable popularity since then. They were also used by several national expert groups that deliberated on energy requirements. Since then, however, questions have frequently been raised in the literature about the adequacy and accuracy of these predictive equations for universal use. In the 1990s, based on the recommendations made at a workshop organized by the International Dietary Energy Consultative Group (IDECG)[6] in London (Scrimshaw, Waterlow and Schurch, 1996) and supported by FAO and the Nestle Foundation, Dr C.J.K. Henry (in collaboration with Dr Durnin) was commissioned to conduct a review of the literature of BMR data, in order to expand and refine the earlier database and to derive new equations based on selective criteria using more geographically representative data. This work resulted in the creation of a new database that has been referred to as the "Oxford database". It also resulted in an increased number of data points and included additional data from several developing countries. The findings of this review were presented at an IDECG meeting in December 1997 in Rome. The results were reviewed and found to be inconclusive in furthering the need to produce new, representative and internationally useable BMR predictive equations for future use.
In preparation for the 2001 Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation on Human Energy Requirements, Dr Henry prepared a background paper that constituted the final analysis of this complete data set, taking into account the feedback provided on his original findings. Concurrently, a subcommittee was formed to guide the expert consultation regarding the appropriateness of the methods used to measure BMR and its related issues. The final conclusion of the subcommittee was to conduct a more in-depth analysis of the Oxford database.
In December 2001, following the 2001 Joint Expert Consultation on Human Energy Requirements, FAO assigned Dr T. Cole the task of reanalysing both the earlier Schofield database and the more recent Oxford data sets on BMR. This analysis was expected to provide information on the influence of ethnicity on BMR, to reveal any possible methodological biases, and to help develop new BMR predictive equations that would replace the currently used international equations in the 1985 report, if their predictive performance was better. Dr Cole carried out an elegant and sophisticated analysis in two stages using the Oxford database consisting of 13 910 BMR data points. The thrust of the first analysis was to develop a single unified and seamless predictive equation that would apply to all ages, i.e. through the life cycle from infancy to old age. The expectation was that a seamless, continuous equation could eliminate the split of the predictive curves at the joining points of the various age groups. This analysis showed that cleaning the data sets by exclusion increased their inefficiency, and hence the inclusion of all data irrespective of the methodology used, the date of publication or the geographical region was the favoured approach. Two major factors that seemed to affect BMR were age and weight, with height having far less effect than weight. The inclusion of both weight and height in the model ensured that variations in body composition were adjusted for. Following a presentation of the first analysis of the data sets, Dr Cole was persuaded to carry out a supplementary analysis to develop predictive equations from subsets of the original database. These were meant to consider adults only, within normal ranges of body mass index (18.5 to 25.0) and were further separated to observe the effect of the time period when the data were collected (i.e. pre- and post- 1950), as well as the effect of excluding any data based on close circuit calorimetry. This analysis showed that all four models examined among adults produced very similar results, and comparison with the earlier predictive equations indicated the absence of any significant improvement from the equations generated for the 1985 report.
Following the reanalysis, Dr M. Ramirez-Zea was asked to validate the equations developed by Dr Cole and compare their predictive performance with that of other BMR predictive equations generally used. Dr Ramirez-Zea then researched the recent literature for additional data sets that had not been included in the 1980s and in the Oxford data sets, but that fulfilled the established criteria for selecting data for those databases, and then tested the various equations against these data. Following this process, a careful review of all findings to date was undertaken by Dr A. Ferro-Luzzi, who suggested that this lengthy post-consultation exercise may not result in providing the experts with a new set of BMR predictive equations to be presented in the report.
In conclusion, the enhanced precision and robustness of the earlier equations, many of them in the published literature since the 1985 report, and the seamlessness of the Cole equation proved to be inadequate to persuade the expert consultation to warrant discontinuing the use of the international equations presented in the1985 report and widely used since then. Thus, for the current energy report, the experts decided to follow the advice of the FAO Secretariat and continue to use the Schofield BMR predictive equations. However, it was agreed that it was necessary to pursue an aggressive review of all the work that had been done to see whether the BMR equation question could be resolved more satisfactorily, both as a follow-up and in preparation for the next energy review, which it is hoped will take place within the next five years. Additional details as to how this decision was reached, along with Dr Henrys background document on this topic, Dr Coles analysis and the review by Drs Ramirez-Zea and Ferro-Luzzi, will be published alongside all the background documentation related to this expert consultation as a supplement to the Public Health Nutrition journal in 2005.
References
Quenouille, M.H., Boyne, A.W., Fisher, W.B. & Leitch, I. 1951. Statistical studies of recorded energy expenditure of man. Part I. Basal metabolism related to sex, stature, age, climate and race. Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Nutrition Technical Communication No 17. Aberdeen, UK, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau.
Scrimshaw, S., Waterlow, J.C. & Schurch, B. (eds). 1996. Energy and protein requirements. Proceedings of an IDECG Workshop 31 October to 4 November 1994. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 50: S1-S197.
This software application is an interactive program that allows the user great flexibility in customizing input parameters and population statistics. It is composed of a series of modules with the following functions:
calculation of average daily energy requirements for populations;
estimation of corresponding quantities of food commodities (cereals, pulses, roots and tubers, fish, meat, and fruits and vegetables) needed to meet the energy needs of the population;
display of results in report and graphical formats.
The software allows users to base calculations on default data provided for countries and UN-defined regions, or to customize data for sub-country-level populations.
A. CONTENT OF THE CD-ROM: CALCULATING POPULATION ENERGY REQUIREMENTS AND FOOD NEEDS
Installation instructions.
Setup.exe.
Read me first.txt.
Calculating population energy requirements and food needs: users manual. This is a PDF file of the users manual, which includes background information for the estimation of population energy requirements, a description of the data needed for the calculations, a description of the calculations for single age groups, an explanation of the values obtained from the software application, advice on maximizing information obtained from the software application, and annexes that demonstrate how the calculations are made. The user is advised to read this manual to get the most out of the software application.
Manual annexes with formulas and application databases in MS Excel format.
Application files.
B. CALCULATION OF ENERGY REQUIREMENTS USED BY THE SOFTWARE APPLICATION
There are four options available for calculating energy requirements, as summarized in Annex Table 1.
ANNEX TABLE 1
Options in the energy requirement
module
Default data, average daily energy requirements for populations |
Customized data, average daily energy requirements for populations |
Default data, daily energy requirements for special groups |
Customized data, daily energy requirements for special groups |
The default data option is chosen when the user wishes to calculate energy requirements for a UN-defined region or a country using default data provided with the application. The data provided include population structure by age and sex, crude birth rate and percent urban population for five-year periods from 2000 to 2025, as well as average body weight by age and sex. When choosing the default data option, a screen appears with the default data, any of which may be modified on screen if more recent information is available. This profile can be saved with a unique name and used again at a later date.
ANNEX TABLE 2
Summary of age-specific calculations of
average energy requirements
Age group |
Default body weighta |
Additional energy allowances |
Average daily energy requirementsb |
Adjustments |
Infants: 0-5.99 months |
Reference weight-for-age by sex, 6-month average |
Energy deposition in normal growth |
TEE for breastfed infants + energy needed for growth |
For calculation of the average per capita energy requirement for a country, the sum of average daily energy requirements across age groups does not include breastfed infants aged 0.0-5.9 months, whereas the additional allowance for breastmilk production is included for the adult age group of 18-29 years |
Infants: 6-11.99 months |
Reference weight-for-age by sex, 6 month average |
Energy deposition in normal growth |
TEE for mixed diet infants + energy needed for growth |
|
Children: 1-4.99 years |
Reference weight-for-age, 1year average |
Energy deposition in normal growth |
TEE + energy needed for growth |
TEE is reduced by 7% for age 1.0-1.9 yearsc |
Children: 5-17.99 years |
Weight for given height corresponding to median reference BMI for age-sex |
Energy deposition in normal growth |
TEE + energy needed for growth |
|
Adults: 18-29.99 years |
Weight for given height corresponding to BMI of 22.0 (body weight is held constant across adult age groups) |
Pregnancy: increase of 1.168 MJ per day averaged over entire pregnancy, or 0.870 MJ per day averaged over a year Lactation: increase of 2.100 MJ per day averaged over 6 months after birth of child, or 1.050 MJ per day averaged over a year |
BMR × PAL (location-specific PAL as determined by mix of rural and urban percent and physical activity, or fixed in case of minimum requirement) |
|
Adults: 30-59.99 years |
Weight for given height corresponding to BMI of 22.0 |
|
BMR × PAL (as above) |
|
Adults: 60+ years |
Weight for given height corresponding to BMI of 22.0 |
|
BMR × PAL (as above) |
|
a Median weight-for-age (infants and children 1-4.99 years) and median weight-for-height from NCHS/WHO international reference population growth for infants and children (WHO, 1983) (Annex 1 of users manual). The given heights used to calculate average age-specific body weights come from the growth curves provided in the 1985 James and Schofield manual (James, W.P.T. & Schofield, E.C. 1990. Human energy requirements. A manual for planners and nutritionists. Oxford, UK, Oxford Medical Publications under arrangement with FAO).
b Equations for TEE and BMR used in the calculations are given in Annex 3 of the users manual.
c For age 1.0-1.9 years, the predicted values of TEE were about 7% higher than actual TEE measurements, so in the current program the TEE for the year 1.0-1.9 is adjusted down by 7% to account for the discrepancy (see Chapter 4 of this report).The customized data option allows the user to supply data for a subnational area for which default data are not available, or for a country for which more recent information is available, using a template provided by the application. This profile can be saved with a unique name and used again at a later date.
The average daily energy requirements for populations option calculates energy requirements for healthy populations with a full range of physical activity lifestyles among adults and a mix of urban and rural residence. This option is indicated for food and nutrition planning under normal conditions. Average requirements may be calculated for both default and customized data. The user will be asked to make an educated guess of the PAL based on lifestyle patterns of urban and rural populations in order to calculate the location-specific PAL.
The daily energy requirements for special groups option calculates energy requirements for groups of people with more homogeneous activity lifestyles and residence (i.e. either urban or rural) using a fixed PAL value. Examples of special groups include settlements for refugees or internally displaced persons. This option is indicated for users who have a good knowledge of appropriate PAL values and who are concerned with food planning for special groups, such as rations for emergency use.
Annex Table 2 summarizes the protocols used by the software application to calculate age-specific average daily energy requirements.
C. PRESENTATION OF THE RESULTS
The energy requirement results are presented in two forms. First, per capita requirements for specific age and sex groups and the entire population are calculated, i.e. the average daily energy requirement for an average person of that group. Per capita requirements are then converted to population daily energy needs, i.e. the total number of joules or kilocalories needed to meet the daily energy needs of everyone in that group or in the population as a whole.
Food quantities corresponding to the percentages of the national food supply accounted for by six commodities that meet the population energy needs are reported in metric tonnes (1 000 kg) on a daily, monthly, semi-annual or annual basis for the population under consideration.
ACTIVITY |
MALES |
FEMALES |
||
|
Average |
PAR |
Average |
PAR |
General personal activities |
|
|
|
|
Sleepinga |
1.0 |
|
1.0 |
|
Lyinga |
1.2 |
|
1.2 |
|
Sitting quietlya |
1.2 |
|
1.2 |
|
Standinga |
1.4 |
|
1.5 |
|
Dressing |
2.4 |
1.6-3.3 |
3.3 |
|
Washing hands/face and hair |
2.3 |
|
|
|
Plaiting hair |
|
|
1.8 |
|
Eating and drinking |
1.4 |
|
1.6 |
|
Means of transport |
|
|
|
|
Walking around/strolling |
2.1 |
2.0-2.2 |
2.5 |
2.1-2.9 |
Walking slowly |
2.8 |
2.6-3.0 |
3.0 |
|
Walking quickly |
3.8 |
|
|
|
Walking uphill |
7.1 |
5.5-8.6 |
5.4 |
4.8-6.1 |
Walking downhill |
3.5 |
3.1-4.0 |
3.2 |
|
Climbing stairs |
5.0 |
|
|
|
Sitting on a bus/train |
1.2 |
|
|
|
Cycling |
5.6 |
3.8-8.6 |
3.6 |
|
Cycling on a dirt road |
7.0 |
5.0-9.0 |
|
|
Driving a motor cycle |
2.7 |
2.4-3.0 |
|
|
Driving a car/truck |
2.0 |
|
|
|
Paddling a canoe |
3.0 |
|
|
|
Pulling a rickshaw (one person/no load) |
5.3 |
4.0-6.6 |
|
|
Pulling a rickshaw (2 persons) |
7.2 |
6.7-7.8 |
|
|
Horseback riding (slow) |
3.6 |
|
|
|
Horseback riding (trotting) |
5.2 |
4.8-5.5 |
|
|
Activities involving weight bearing |
|
|
|
|
Walking with 15-20 kg load |
|
|
3.5 |
3.4-3.5 |
Walking with 25-30 kg load |
|
|
3.9 |
3.8-4.1 |
Carrying 20-30 kg load on head |
3.5 |
2.4-4.2 |
|
|
Carrying 35-60 kg load on head |
5.8 |
5.0-7.0 |
|
|
Carrying 27 kg load with shoulder straps - varying gradients |
5.0 |
2.3-7.7 |
|
|
Carrying 27 kg load with forehead strap - varying gradients |
5.32 |
2.4-8.0 |
|
|
Loading 9 kg sack on to a truck |
5.78 |
|
|
|
Loading 16 kg sack on to a truck |
9.65 |
|
|
|
Pulling hand cart - unloaded |
4.82 |
|
|
|
Pulling hand cart with 185-370 kg load |
8.3 |
7.0-9.6 |
|
|
Domestic chores |
|
|
|
|
Cooking/preparing food |
|
|
|
|
Collecting wood (for fuel) |
3.3 |
|
|
|
Collecting water (from well) |
|
|
4.5 |
|
Chopping wood (for fuel) |
4.2 |
2.3-6.5 |
|
|
Kneading dough |
|
|
3.4 |
|
Making tortillas |
|
|
2.4 |
|
Peeling vegetables |
1.9 |
1.3-2.4 |
1.5 |
|
Pounding grain |
|
|
5.6 |
5.0-6.3 |
Shopping |
|
|
4.6 |
|
Squeezing coconut |
|
|
2.4 |
|
Washing dishes |
|
|
1.7 |
1.6-1.9 |
Child care |
|
|
|
|
Child care (unspecified) |
|
|
2.5 |
|
Bathing child (standing) |
|
|
3.5 |
|
Carrying child |
|
|
1.9 |
|
House cleaning |
|
|
|
|
Housework (unspecified) |
|
|
2.8 |
2.5-3.0 |
Beating mats/carpets |
|
|
6.2 |
5.1-7.4 |
Bed making (tropical climate) |
|
|
3.4 |
|
Bed making (cold climate) |
|
|
4.9 |
4.6-5.1 |
Mopping/washing floor |
|
|
4.4 |
3.4-6.5 |
Polishing floor |
|
|
4.4 |
|
Sweeping |
|
|
2.3 |
2.0-2.5 |
Vacuuming |
|
|
3.9 |
|
Window cleaning |
3.0 |
2.8-3.3 |
|
|
Laundry |
|
|
|
|
Washing clothes (sitting/squatting) |
|
|
2.8 |
2.6-3.0 |
Hanging washing out to dry |
|
|
4.4 |
4.3-4.6 |
Ironing clothes |
3.5 |
|
1.7 |
|
Sewing/knitting |
1.6 |
|
1.5 |
1.3-1.8 |
Care of the yard/garden |
|
|
|
|
Cleaning/sweeping yard |
3.7 |
2.9-4.5 |
3.6 |
|
Weeding garden |
3.3 |
2.4-5.1 |
2.9 |
2.7-3.6 |
Shovelling snow from driveway |
7.9 |
|
|
|
Agricultural activities |
|
|
|
|
General activities |
|
|
|
|
Digging |
5.6 |
|
5.7 |
|
Driving a tractor |
2.1 |
1.9-2.3 |
|
|
Fertilizing (spreading manure) |
5.2 |
4.9-5.4 |
|
|
Gleaning |
|
|
4.5 |
|
Grinding grain using a mill stone |
|
|
4.6 |
|
Hoeing |
4.2 |
3.6-4.6 |
5.3 |
4.7-6.5 |
Loading sacks on to a truck |
6.6 |
|
|
|
Ploughing with horse |
4.8 |
|
|
|
Ploughing with tractor |
3.4 |
|
|
|
Ploughing with buffalo |
|
|
3.6 |
|
Spraying crops |
4.3 |
|
|
|
Weeding |
4.0 |
2.6-4.7 |
3.7 |
3.7-3.8 |
Cocoa crop |
|
|
|
|
Collecting cocoa |
|
|
2.9 |
|
Pruning |
2.4 |
|
|
|
Splitting cocoa |
|
|
2.0 |
|
Activities for coconut crop |
|
|
|
|
Collecting (climbing trees) |
4.2 |
|
|
|
Husking |
5.6 |
|
|
|
Bagging and splitting |
3.9 |
|
|
|
Fruit crops (apple, orange) |
|
|
|
|
Picking (with pole) |
|
|
3.8 |
|
Picking by hand |
3.4 |
|
|
|
Pruning trees |
3.6 |
|
|
|
Groundnut crop |
|
|
|
|
Harvesting |
4.7 |
|
|
|
Planting |
3.1 |
|
|
|
Shelling |
1.6 |
|
|
|
Sorting |
1.9 |
|
|
|
Weeding |
3.2 |
|
|
|
Maize crop |
|
|
|
|
Harvesting |
5.1 |
|
|
|
Planting |
4.1 |
|
|
|
Rice crop |
|
|
|
|
Bundling rice |
3.7 |
|
3.0 |
|
Fertilizing |
3.1 |
|
|
|
Harvesting |
3.5 |
2.4-4.2 |
3.8 |
3.5-4.4 |
Planting |
3.7 |
3.5-4.0 |
3.6 |
2.6-4.7 |
Spraying |
5.2 |
|
|
|
Threshing |
5.4 |
4.6-5.0 |
5.1 |
4.8-5.4 |
Transplanting seedlings |
3.3 |
3.1-3.4 |
3.7 |
3.5-4.0 |
Winnowing |
2.9 |
2.3-3.6 |
2.7 |
2.5-2.9 |
Sugar cane crop |
|
|
|
|
Cutting |
7.0 |
6.6-7.9 |
|
|
Loading on to wagon |
5.6 |
|
|
|
Tying cane |
3.0 |
|
|
|
Tuber crops |
|
|
|
|
Harvesting |
4.4 |
3.5-5.7 |
3.0 |
2.8-3.4 |
Planting |
5.0 |
|
3.9 |
3.6-5.0 |
Sorting (kneeling) |
2.2 |
1.6-2.7 |
|
|
Animal husbandry |
|
|
|
|
Carrying straw |
3.1 |
|
|
|
Cleaning equipment |
4.0 |
|
|
|
Cutting straw |
5.0 |
|
|
|
Feeding animals |
3.6 |
|
|
|
Grooming horses |
5.5 |
3.8-7.1 |
|
|
Milking by hand |
3.6 |
3.1-4.1 |
|
|
Milking by machine |
3.2 |
|
|
|
Tending animals (feeding, watering, cleaning stable) |
4.6 |
|
|
|
Hunting/fishing |
|
|
|
|
Crabbing |
|
|
4.51 |
|
Fishing with a lineb |
1.9 |
|
|
|
Fishing with a spear |
2.3 |
|
|
|
Fishing with hands |
|
|
3.94 |
|
Hunting (bats, birds, pigs) b |
3.2 |
|
|
|
Occupational categories |
|
|
|
|
Bakery work |
|
|
2.5 |
|
Brewery work |
|
|
2.9 |
|
Brickmaker |
|
|
|
|
Earth cutting |
5.6 |
5.5-5.7 |
|
|
Making mud bricks (squatting) |
3.0 |
|
|
|
Builder |
|
|
|
|
Carrying wood |
6.6 |
|
|
|
Cement mixing with shovel |
5.3 |
|
|
|
Chipping cement walls |
3.3 |
|
|
|
Chiselling |
5.0 |
|
|
|
Nailing |
3.0 |
|
|
|
Planing softwood |
5.7 |
4.4-7.1 |
|
|
Planing hardwood |
8.0 |
|
|
|
Roofing |
2.9 |
|
|
|
Sandpapering |
2.9 |
|
|
|
Sawing softwood |
5.3 |
5.0-5.6 |
|
|
Sawing hardwood |
6.6 |
|
|
|
Painting |
3.6 |
|
|
|
Firefighter |
|
|
|
|
Dragging fire hose |
9.8 |
|
|
|
Climbing steps with full gear |
12.2 |
|
|
|
Flight attendant (serving food, beverages and galley work) b |
3.0 |
|
3.1 |
|
Forester |
|
|
|
|
Tree cutting |
6.9 |
5.4-8.0 |
|
|
Sawing |
5.7 |
|
|
|
Planting trees |
4.1 |
|
|
|
Nursery work |
3.6 |
|
|
|
Military training |
|
|
|
|
Digging trenches |
6.4 |
4.6-7.9 |
|
|
Drill |
4.5 |
4.1-4.8 |
|
|
March (slow) |
3.18 |
|
|
|
March 2-4 m/h (3.2-6.4 km/h) with 27 kg loadb |
4.9 |
|
|
|
Obstacle course |
5.7 |
5.0-6.3 |
|
|
Miner |
|
|
|
|
Drilling with jackhammer |
3.9 |
|
|
|
Loading operations |
3.2 |
|
|
|
Shovelling |
4.6 |
|
|
|
Office worker |
|
|
|
|
Filing |
1.3 |
|
1.5 |
|
Reading |
1.3 |
|
1.5 |
|
Sitting at deska |
1.3 |
|
|
|
Standing/moving arounda |
1.6 |
|
|
|
Typing |
1.8 |
|
1.8 |
|
Writing |
1.4 |
|
1.4 |
|
Postal worker |
|
|
|
|
Climbing stairs |
8.9 |
7.7-10.7 |
|
|
Sorting parcels (habitual) |
5.4 |
|
|
|
Shoemaker |
2.6 |
|
2.2 |
|
Tailorb |
2.5 |
|
|
|
Textile factory worker (average of spinning, weaving, dyeing) b |
3.1 |
|
2.2 |
|
Sports activities |
|
|
|
|
Aerobic dancing - low-intensity |
3.51 |
|
4.24 |
|
Aerobic dancing - high-intensity |
7.93 |
|
8.31 |
|
Basketball |
6.95 |
|
7.74 |
|
Batting |
4.85 |
|
|
|
Bowling |
4.21 |
|
|
|
Callisthenics |
5.44 |
|
|
|
Circuit training |
6.96 |
|
6.29 |
|
Football |
8.0 |
7.5-8.5 |
|
|
Golf |
4.38 |
|
|
|
Rowing |
6.7 |
|
5.34 |
|
Running - long distanceb |
6.34 |
|
6.55 |
|
Running - sprinting |
8.21 |
|
8.28 |
|
Sailing |
1.42 |
|
1.54 |
|
Swimming |
9 |
8.5-9.4 |
|
|
Tennis |
5.8 |
|
5.92 |
|
Volleyball |
6.06 |
|
6.06 |
|
Miscellaneous recreational activities |
|
|
|
|
Dancing |
5.0 |
|
5.09 |
|
Listening to radio/musicb |
1.57 |
1.45-1.9 |
1.43 |
|
Painting |
1.25 |
|
1.27 |
|
Playing cards/board gamesb |
1.5 |
1.4-1.8 |
1.75 |
|
Playing the drums |
3.71 |
|
|
|
Playing the piano |
2.25 |
|
|
|
Playing the trumpet |
1.77 |
|
|
|
Reading |
1.22 |
|
1.25 |
|
Watching TV |
1.64 |
|
1.72 |
|
Notes: This annex has been compiled from the background document provided to the expert consultation by M. Vaz et al. and also from the values referred in WHO. 1985. Energy and protein requirements: report of a joint FAO/WHO/UNU expert consultation. WHO Technical Report Series No. 724. Geneva.
The average PAR is the average PAR reported from multiple studies, when such data exist. PAR range refers to the minimum and maximum PAR reported across studies for a particular activity.
a These entries come from the WHO, 1985 report.
b These activities are averages of two or more categories.
[6] Created in 1986, IDECG
studies the effects of varying levels of dietary energy intake on the health and
welfare of individuals and societies. Its objectives include the compilation and
interpretation of relevant research data on functional and other consequences of
deficiency, change or excess of dietary energy; the identification and promotion
of related research needs and priorities; the publication of scientific and
policy statements and other information on the significance of chronic
deficiencies and excesses of dietary energy; and the identification and
promotion of appropriate and practical means of corrective action. |