Annex 1 - Part 1
Farmer questionnaire
Completed by.....................................................................................
Date...................................................................................................
Name of farmer..................................................................................
Location of farm.................................................................................
Brief description of the
farm...............................................................
...........................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Resources
Area of
farm.....................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
................................................................................
(total, farmed, irrigated)
Equipment
used?..............................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
Access to
water................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
(distance from farm, irrigation techniques)
Inputs (seed, fertilizer, herbicides) purchased and from where
purchased......
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
How many people work on the
farm?.................................................................
............................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(self, family and any hired workers)
Production
What are the main crops grown for
sale?..............................................
...............................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
(identify the main crops actually sold, rather than consumed, and the percentage of total output represented by market sales)
What are the main production problems
faced?.......................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Marketing
How are crops/products
sold?...........................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(visit by trader to farm, taken to local market or major market, etc.)
How does the farmer decide what prices to ask
for?........................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
What are the main problems with
marketing?...................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Who are the most important buyers of each product
locally?...........
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
What improvements would you like to see made to marketing
arrangements?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Annex 1 - Part 2
Farmer marketing
arrangements
Product.............................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
(identify product for more detailed investigation)
Product information
Total yield.........................................................................................
How much of your total production is sold?.....................................
Volumes sold
annually?...................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
(increasing or decreasing sales)
Seasonal
supply..............................................................................
.........................................................................................................
(start, peak and end of season by month)
Packing............................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
(weight of produce per packaging unit, type of packaging)
Are any grading and quality standards
applied?...............................
...........................................................................................................
(size, colour, moisture, variety)
Usual prices and range of
prices.......................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(average price, maximum and minimum prices, variability between season, price varies according to grade)
Costs of production?
..................................................................
...................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
(cultivation, seeds, fertilizer, irrigation, weeding and herbicides, pests and disease control, labour for seeding/planting, crop management, spraying, irrigation, harvesting, grading, packing)
Transport (for trader and farmer)
How is transport organized and carried
out?.................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
What volumes are carried on each trip to the
market?....................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
What are the costs per package used for transporting produce
to the different
markets?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
What are the transport problems
faced?...........................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Packaging, storage and processing (farmer and trader)
Type and size of packaging material, and how much does it
cost?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
Storage arrangements, if any. Where, how and by
whom?................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
(on farm, cooperative, farmer group, in market, by end user, type, cost)
Business
How is the crop marketed at
present?...................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Who are the most important buyers and
why?.......................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
(different types of buyers the farmer can sell to)
Which buyers have the best
reputation?...........................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Is there competition between
buyers?...............................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Do farmers provide credit to
buyers?................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
When do buyers
pay?........................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
What are the main markets where produce is
sold?..........................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
General points
Is this crop
profitable?........................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Is there opportunity for selling more
products?..................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
How can the profitability of the crop be
improved?............................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
How do you know what price to sell your crops
at?...........................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
(word of mouth; market information, radio)
Annex 2
Trader questionnaire
Interviewer..............................................................................
Date...................................................................................................
Contact..................................................................................
Position..............................................................................................
Name and address of business.........................................................
Company
activities.............................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(main products handled, who sells to whom, services provided such as cold storage, collection, delivery, credit, packaging, grading)
Company
resources............................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(Transport, cold storage, wholesale outlets, retail outlets)
Procedure for doing
business.............................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
(Are products collected or delivered by the farmer? Commission or fixed price purchases? How/when are prices agreed? Payment terms?)
Products in demand or in short
supply
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(products needed in greater volume and when, product specifications, likely prices)
Main
customers.................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(Are sales increasing, flat or declining?)
Main difficulties as a
business?.........................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
How traders want to work with
suppliers?.........................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
What are the major
businesses trading in fruit and
vegetables?.......................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Trader product information
Product..............................................................................................
Volumes sold.....................................................................................
(total per year)
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
(high or low monthly or weekly examples)
Estimated total size of
market............................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
(try to establish the overall volume of sales in the area, town, city, and the relationship between supply and demand)
Major
suppliers..................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(What are their seasonal or unique selling points and do you experience any problems with them?)
Product
specifications........................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(variety or description)
Grading or quality
standards..............................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
(degree of ripeness, colour, flavour, sizes, acceptable level of faults)
Packaging..........................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(type of packaging, size, net weight of produce, necessary printing)
Reasons for price
variations........................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
(buying, selling, range, impact of seasonality)
Typical prices per month
|
Jan |
_______ |
Feb |
_______ |
Mar |
_______ |
Apr |
_______ |
|
May |
_______ |
Jun |
_______ |
July |
_______ |
Aug |
_______ |
|
Sep |
_______ |
Oct |
_______ |
Nov |
_______ |
Dec |
_______ |
Factors affecting
sales.......................................................................
...........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
Sales
trend.........................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(Have sales been increasing, decreasing or flat over the last two to three seasons?)
Are additional/new supplies required for this
crop?...........................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
When and how much of additional supplies are
required?................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Trader's recommendations
regarding how new suppliers can
become
involved..........................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Transport
How is transport organized and carried
out?.......................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Volumes and costs
involved..............................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
What transport problems are
experienced?.......................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Packaging, storage and processing
Type and size of packaging
material.................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(who owns it or who supplies it and costs)
Storage arrangements, where, how and by
whom?..........................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Annex 3
A summary of marketing extension
techniques
|
Potential activity |
Marketing education |
Market linkages |
Coordinating activities |
| |
Pre-production activities |
||
|
Market-Orientated Production |
Training farmers in what the market wants in terms of product and marketing system. Using successful farmers to explain their business strategies and techniques. |
- |
Organizing successful farmers to meet with others. |
|
Crop Budgets/Prices |
Farmer education to present alternative crops, their potential returns and how they can be improved. Use farmer meetings, or work with farmer associations or groups. |
- |
Farmer meetings |
|
Input Supply |
Advice, via the agricultural extension service or buyers, on improved production techniques. |
- |
Advising local agribusiness suppliers of needs for specialist inputs by farmers (i.e. specific varieties, particular sprays, technologies). |
|
Finance and Credit |
Explaining to farmers the range and costs and benefits of alternative sources of credit, including informal credit. |
- |
Advising local agribusiness suppliers of needs for specialist inputs by farmers and the willingness of local financial institutions to finance these. |
|
Investment Advice |
Potential marketing and financial benefits of investment in new technology can be explained. Farmers who have introduced the techniques or technologies can give talks. |
- |
Advising input suppliers and local shops on the improved technology and inputs that farmers will want to buy. Organizing farmers to explain their technologies to others. |
|
|
Post-harvest and distribution |
||
|
Harvesting |
Farmer training and practical demonstrations. |
- |
Planning training. |
|
Grading, Packing and Storage |
Farmer and trader training and practical demonstrations. The provision of information on grading and packing standards. |
- |
Ensuring that packing material is available from local sources. Working with local manufacturers of packaging. |
|
Transport and Distribution |
Working with farmers to consider ways of reducing costs. Providing lists of transporters and indications of typical costs. |
- |
Organizing farmers and transporters to develop lower-cost, more-reliable transport connections through load consolidation, regular collections, etc. |
|
|
Marketing and selling |
||
|
Linking buyers with sellers |
Explaining to farmers how the marketing chain works and how it is changing. Providing lists of buyers and their contacts. |
Organizing for traders to meet farmers and farmer groups. Helping traders, exporters and farmers to research and identify marketing opportunities. |
Facilitating meetings, through trade fairs, outward seller missions, and inward buyer missions. |
|
Improved communication in the marketing chain |
Using training to explain to farmers and traders each others' needs, requirements and activities. |
- |
Creating opportunities for buyers and sellers to meet, discuss and develop ways of increasing sales and overcoming constraints (e.g. at workshops, seminars, training sessions). Much of the important discussion will happen informally between farmers and traders. |
|
Establishing collection centres, local markets, village
markets and assembly markets |
Explaining to farmers the need for a local market and gaining their support. |
Explaining to traders the need for a local or assembly market and encouraging traders to attend local markets. |
Identifying the market's location. Liaising with the authorities to provide services. Agreeing the dates/timing of the market. Advising farmers and traders of when it will occur. Supporting the market during the early days. |
|
Working with farmer groups, farmer associations and
cooperatives |
Discussing and developing with farmers a strategy for improving the marketing of their products. Identifying potential trading partners for the groups |
Enabling representatives of the farmer group to negotiate supply contracts with traders. |
Supporting the first few trades so that misunderstandings can be resolved and disputes overcome. |
|
Working with agribusiness |
Helping farmers to understand alternative contract terms. |
Making introductions between the farming sector and agribusiness. |
Ensuring that the farmers and the agribusiness activities are coordinated and that problems, misunderstandings and disputes are resolved. |
|
Contracts |
Helping farmers to understand alternative contract terms. |
Assisting farmers with contracts by providing advice on typical terms. |
Linking farmers and farmer groups with agribusiness. |
|
Negotiating and selling |
Guiding farmers on how the market operates (supply and demand), negotiation techniques and typical price ranges. |
Assisting farmers in negotiating with new suppliers by identifying potential customers for farmers and providing guidance on buying terms. |
Providing information to farmers on where they can obtain market information and can contact buyers. |
|
Using market information |
Training farmers in how to use and interpret information. Emphasizing the importance of farmers gathering information themselves. |
Encouraging farmers to contact traders to obtain market information and prices. |
Organizing dissemination of government price information. Providing information to farmers on contacts, markets, products and prices. |
|
Building up new trading activities |
Planning with farmers a sensible approach to developing sales. Identifying new market opportunities for traders. |
Providing samples to interested buyers. Carrying out test marketing to the most promising traders. |
Providing on-going support during the early stages of trading to help overcome disputes and misunderstandings. Assisting with market research. |
|
Value-added enterprises |
- |
Linking processors with potential trading partners. |
Organizing training and linkages with those that can supply the technology. |
|
Crop Development |
- |
- |
Organizing for crop research and development trials to take place and using these for demonstrations to farmers. |
|
Project linkages |
- |
- |
Attract financial and technical support to the area by presenting its opportunities and needs to government, NGOs and international organizations. |
|
Infrastructure |
- |
- |
Lobbying local and national authorities for investment and support. |
|
Training of Agricultural Officers |
Providing courses to senior managers, trainers, researchers and extension officers so that they can appreciate the importance of marketing. |
- |
- |
Annex 4 - Part 1
A summary of post-harvest handling
issues
Post-harvest handling requires extensive study to be fully understood. This guide only covers some basic principles.
Use publications listed in "Further reading" at the end of this guide to obtain more information.
Production influences on shelf life
(quality and a
long shelf life start with production)
Factors that influence shelf life are:
Water
Too much leads to soft growth and easily damaged produce.
Too little leads to small sizes and low juice levels.
Dry followed by wet weather spells can lead to splits or cracks.
Fertilizer
Incorrect nutrition leads to physiological damage and a short shelf life.
Pests and diseases
Damage from these shortens shelf life.
Crop Maturity
Crops harvested before maturity wilt rapidly.
Major causes of crop losses
· Water loss
Plants consist of 65-85% water. Once harvested there is no replacement of water lost. The larger the surface area (e.g. with leafy vegetables) the greater the potential water loss. When 5 to 10% is lost the product visibly wilts and is unsaleable.
· Mechanical damage
This happens at harvesting or results from bad handling. Skin breakages, crushing and bruising all lead to physiological damage and disease infection.
· Physiological damage
When a harvested plant, or part of a plant, is wilted, damaged or attacked by a disease or pest then chemical reactions that can cause unpalatable flavours can occur within the plant tissue. Plant material rapidly ages without fresh water and foods from photosynthesis.
· Disease damage
Damage, whether from bad handling or pest attack, increases the likelihood of attack from a disease, as does moisture on the surface of the produce, which can lead to fungus development.
· High temperatures
The higher the temperature, the greater is the moisture loss. As a result, disease infection will be speedier and the shelf life shorter.
Techniques for reducing crop damage and extending shelf life
· Reduce water loss
Harvest crops when they are well watered; keep them in high humidity, reduce air flow, keep produce cool. The curing of some products (e.g. drying the neck and outer skin of onions, allowing potatoes and yams to develop a thicker skin under warm humid conditions) reduces moisture loss.
· Do not damage
Cut don't pull; hold in the palm not with the fingers; don't drop, be gentle and always handle with care.
Pack in boxes without sharp edges.
Use shallow boxes.
Ensure that there is no excessive weight of produce on top of other produce.
Make sure that the fruit does not stick out above the top of the box and get crushed.
Boxes can collapse or become weakened if too many are stacked on top of each other (especially wet cardboard boxes).
Drive carefully on poor roads.
For valuable crops use cushioning inside boxes
(e.g. trays, paper).
· Minimize physiological damage
Keep produce cool, turgid and undamaged.
· Minimize diseases
Discard diseased and damaged fruit; if necessary treat produce with fungicide; avoid damage; allow sufficient airflow to prevent moisture collecting on the surface of the fruit and vegetables. Keep field boxes clean and do not let produce touch the ground.
· Above all keep the produce cool
Harvest when the produce is cool (i.e. in the early morning)
In the field protect the produce from the sun with a damp cloth. Remove from the sun as soon as possible, store under shade.
· When refrigerating
Remove the field heat as quickly as possible and reduce to storage temperature (n.b. every hour that cooling is delayed reduces the maximum shelf life by 10 hours). If produce is refrigerated it MUST be kept in a cool chain until sale, or else moisture will develop on the surface of the produce.
· When not using refrigeration
Keep produce in a cool, dark, humid location.
Harvesting
· Avoid mechanical damage to produce at all times. Keep produce clean, out of the sun and avoid contact with the soil.
· Harvest when produce is cool and not wet (e.g. from dew, rain or irrigation).
· Root crops have less damage when grown on raised beds.
· Leafy vegetables should be snapped by hand.
· Cabbage and lettuce should be cut and trimmed with a knife.
· Loosen bulbs with a digging fork before harvesting.
· To harvest cauliflower and broccoli, cut with a knife.
· Fruit should ideally be cut or, if ripe, 'lift, twist and pull', holding the fruit in the palm of the hand.
· Mature green fruit or fruit with a wooden stalk should be clipped.
· Immature fruit with a fleshy stem (e.g. okra, zucchini, capsicum, and papaya) can be cut with a knife.
· Harvesting bags allow both hands to be free and reduce fruit damage.
· Small plastic buckets are suitable for produce that could be crushed (e.g. tomatoes and beans).
· Bulk bins are used for large-scale transportation of products like citrus, apples and cabbages.
· Transport carefully and slowly over bumpy roads.
Optimium timing of harvest
· Cabbage
Harvest when the head has formed tightly, before the outer leaves start to die or the head shows any sign of splitting. At the correct stage of maturity, freshly harvested cabbage heads should squeak when rubbed together.
· Cantaloupe melons
The fruit should separate easily from the plant. If only part of the stem pulls off then the fruit is not ripe and will never ripen to a full flavour.
· Honeydew melon
Harvest when the fruit is well filled out, there is just a hint of green and the surface is covered with fine hairs.
· Bananas
For export, or sales in distant markets, harvest when still green and only at between three-quarters full (80 days from shooting) to high three quarters (90 days from shooting). The longer the period of transport the thinner the fingers should be at the time of cutting. For local marketing the fruit is harvested when fully mature but before ripening has started.
· Pineapples
For local consumption or canning, harvest when the fruit has yellowed up by 25 to 50 percent. For distant markets harvesting should take place when the first hint of colour change has been observed at the basal end.
· Citrus
Maturity indices of citrus are based on juice content by volume, total soluble solids in the juices and the solids: acid ratio, according to variety and market. In general, fruits should contain at least 40 percent by volume of juice and the total soluble solids should be above 8%.
· Apples
For storage pick apples when fully mature but not fully ripe.
In the packhouse
· Grading of produce
Grading can only separate different quality products, it cannot improve quality.
· Remove damaged produce or else it will lower overall value and be a source of infection.
· Grade produce according to size and colour.
· Grading is best done by eye.
· Photographs, training and sizing aids help staff doing the grading to get their 'eye in'.
· Packaging of produce
Protects the produce from damage.
Is a convenient unit for distribution.
Can be an advertisement for the produce.
Labels or brands the product.
· Packhouses
The packhouse should be cool, offering shade and protection from rain, but allowing natural ventilation.
It should be designed to allow produce to flow in one direction.
Washing should be done in clean, running water.
Administer fungicide treatment by spraying and/or dipping.
Dry produce thoroughly before packing.
Grade and pack produce on tables, never on the ground.
Store in a cool, shady place. Despatch as soon as possible.
Packaging
· Locally available natural materials (e.g. baskets woven from bamboo, willow or cartons made from thin strips of wood or rushes).
Typical problems associated with these materials
Poor rigidity and design, which prevents multiple stacking.
Sharp edges, which can cause bruising or pierce produce.
Inefficient usage of transport space, which increases costs.
Damage to the environment due to overuse of local materials
(e.g. cutting down trees to make packing cases).
Advantages of using locally available materials
Material costs are low.
Both jobs and incomes are created for local businesses who make the packaging.
Local sources of packaging also make it easier to obtain and reduce the risk that packaging will not be available.
· Wooden boxes and trays are widely used throughout both the developing and developed world.
Advantages of using wooden materials
Strong, rigid and can also withstand refrigeration.
They can be recycled.
They can be manufactured locally.
Disadvantages
Wood is often not available or is very expensive.
Boxes are often not designed or manufactured properly, resulting in poor stacking and ventilation characteristics.
In an effort to save wood, the boxes are made too deep, resulting in damage to the bottom layers of produce.
Improved design is particularly likely to result in both savings in wood and reduced crop damage.
They can be reused but are difficult to clean.
The "European" produce tray has been successfully introduced in a number of countries.
Critical design features of this tray are:
Standard box sizes, particularly length and width, to facilitate stacking.
Using thin strips of wood for the floor and part of the sides but especially strong wood at the vertical corners, as these have to support the weight of the stack.
A gap between the sides of the tray and the floor of the next tray, allowing for ventilation.
No lid but paper placed on top of the produce to reduce the effects of dust, evaporation and to minimize pilfering.
Shallow trays are used for easily bruised crops such as tomatoes, peaches, grapes and mangoes.
Deeper boxes are used for apples and citrus. Larger but flimsier boxes are often used for cabbages and cauliflowers.
· Fibre board or corrugated cardboard are increasingly being used. There are a number of cleverly designed boxes that can be copied. Thes boxes are very light and can be easily printed on so to make them look very attractive.
Typical problems associated with these boxes
Boxes are expensive and cannot be recycled.
They need to be waxed to withstand long-term cold storage.
Manufacturing is done by large factories, often at the expense of rural jobs.
Raw materials often have to be imported.
Recent design improvements include boxes that are made from a combination of wood, for structural strength, and cardboard. Plastic has also been incorporated in designs, particularly to increase strength at the corners.
· Plastic containers are expensive and generally have to be imported. They have to be returned to the farm after use and are mainly used as field boxes or to supply a regular outlet such as a factory or supermarket.
· Bags and nets are cheap but provide no protection from damage. They can be used to package suitable produce like onions and potatoes into convenient units for handling and marketing.
· Plastic and paper are often used as lining or wrapping for produce.
· Printing, packaging presentation and brand names can all add value to produce but only in markets where consumers are wealthy and appreciate aesthetics and image.
Storage
Produce can be stored for both short-term and long-term purposes.
· Short-term storage is used to provide flexibility in marketing (e.g. when awaiting transport, or because buyers are not immediately available).
· Long-term storage is suitable for a few crops (see table next page). These can be held in stores well beyond the normal harvesting period. In turn, higher prices can normally be obtained and greater volumes of produce sold.
Refrigerated stores offer the longest storage conditions for produce, however they have some disadvantages.
They are expensive
They require high quality technical management.
They need electricity and, if supply is irregular, a generator.
Ventilated stores can be extremely cost-effective but require specific conditions
Cool night temperatures.
Buildings should be positioned to intercept the prevailing night-time winds.
Buildings should be protected from the sun's heat (e.g. by using shade from trees, painting the building white or building double-skinned walls).
When the ambient air temperature falls below that of the produce, normally at night, the air has to flow through the stored produce by opening louvres (this process can be automated and fans can be used to increase air flow rates).
Evaporative cooling from the incoming air (i.e. passing through moist air) which assists in cooling and humidifying the store.
Examples of ventilated storage
Potatoes can be held through the winter (three to nine months) provided they have been cured and treated with sprout suppressant.
After drying and curing onions can be stored using the same techniques but with lower humidities, (with onions there are great differences between varieties and production locations);
Garlic can be held for three to four months.
Sweet potatoes need to be cured at 28 to 30°C for a few days.
Subsequently they can be stored for up to six months.
Cabbages, carrots, pumpkins, apples, pears and lemons have all been successfully stored using ventilated stores (e.g. in Syria, apples can be stored in caves for nearly 10 months).
Annex 4 - Part 2
Generalized storage advice for fresh
produce
|
Advice |
Reason |
|
Harvest produce at the proper maturity stage |
Immature produce has thinner skin resulting in faster evaporation |
|
Keep produce in shade |
Water losses are four times quicker in sunlight |
|
Store only crops that are clean |
Diseased produce may infect sound crops. Damaged produce is easily infected and loses water. Dirt is a source of disease |
|
Remove leaves attached to fruit and root crops |
Leaves lose water rapidly |
|
Apply approved sprout suppressant to potatoes, onions, garlic and ginger |
Helps reduce sprouting during storage |
|
Wash fruit in chlorinated water (200 ppm), or commercially-available fungicide for about 30 seconds, rinse and dry |
Controls fungus disease |
|
Line baskets with paper or leaves, and containers with polythene film with some ventilation holes |
All act as barriers to high moisture loss |
|
Store as soon as possible |
The quicker produce is cooled, the slower the water evaporates and microbial activity is reduced |
|
Storage rooms and containers should be clean |
Reduces chance of infection from previous crop |
|
Allow air circulation |
Removes heat and ethylene given off by produce |
|
Separate ripe from unripe fruit |
Ripening gives off ethylene which hastens ripening of unripe fruit |
|
Avoid mixing produce in the same storeroom |
Odours and gases given off can damage other crops |
|
Store leafy vegetables at a high relative humidity |
Dry air rapidly draws moisture out of leaves |
|
Cool moist conditions can be created by dripping water through burlap or jute sacks which serve as the wall covering of the cool store |
The latent heat of evaporation cools the air. |
|
Keep root crops in moist and slightly warm environment for 10 days before storage |
This is called curing and hastens the healing of wounds |
|
Bulb crops should be dried or cured until the neck is tight and the outer scales rustle |
Diseases, particularly neck rot, are controlled, and moisture loss is reduced |
|
Store roots and bulbs in drier atmosphere than other produce |
Root crops sprout easily under moist conditions |
|
Store tropical produce at 10° C or above, and temperate crops at below 10° C |
Tropical crops suffer chilling injury at low temperatures |
|
Use containers that can withstand stacking without injuring produce |
Optimizes use of available storage space |
|
Maintain high humidities in cold stores by preventing entry of warm air through using plastic strip curtains, keeping doors closed and wetting floors |
High humidities for most crops reduce shrinkage and weight loss |
|
Do not store onions in sacks piled to more than six high |
To minimize compression damage |
|
Keep potatoes stored in the dark |
In sunlight they become green and poisonous |
|
Clean, moist sawdust can be used to store fruit like tomatoes, rambutans and mangoes |
High humidities are maintained. |
Annex 4 - Part 3
Recommended transport
practices
|
Advice |
Reason |
|
Take products out of the cold store during the cool part of the day |
In warm conditions produce attracts condensation. |
|
Transport produce during the coolest part of the day (dawn or night) |
Heat causes faster respiration and water loss |
|
Supervise loading and unloading. |
To prevent boxes being dropped |
|
Loading can be made easy by the use of loading bays or with steps or planks. Trolleys, conveyors and fork-lift trucks reduce handling |
Produce can be carried on and off easily |
|
For loading bulk-transported pineapples, cabbages and melons, the throw-catch system can be used but should involve at least five people |
This is acceptable because of the need for speed in unloading and the low value of the individual fruit |
|
Place padding (e.g. cardboard) between stacks of containers |
To prevent the load shifting and to help absorb vibration |
|
Provide space between crates for adequate ventilation |
To prevent accumulation of heat and gases |
|
Containers should be packed to reduce movement and to distribute weight evenly. Only stack to a height that the bottom containers can withstand without being crushed. Stow goods in reverse order to their unloading sequence |
Shifting loads and poor weight distribution damage produce and cause vehicle-handling problems |
|
Use white or white-painted canvas to cover the produce |
The sun's heat will be reflected from produce |
|
Provide ventilation during transport by raising the canvas cover 20 cm with a plank into a low tent shape |
To provide airflow for the removal of heat and gases |
|
Vans should be double-skinned and allow ventilation |
To prevent the transmission of heat to the produce |
|
Use horizontal dividers to separate layers of containers in the truck. This system can also be used for bulk transport of such produce as melons, cabbages, citrus and pineapples |
Prevents compression damage to the produce being transported. Can be used for containers that do not stack, as well as bulk shipments |
|
Bulk shipments should be cushioned with a thick layer of straw or leaves on the bottom and sides of the lorry |
Water melons are transported this way in the USA to prevent damage |
|
Jolting should be reduced by not driving too fast, particularly on poor roads. Long wheel-bases reduce damage, as does air-ride suspension, which is preferable to leaf-spring suspension |
Jolting increases crop bruising and wastage, reducing sales income |
|
Vehicles should be properly maintained |
Breakdowns result in time wastage and may result in high levels of produce damage |
|
During loading, unloading and when parked the truck should be in the shade |
Gives protection from sun and rain |
Annex 5
Training of agricultural
officers
Marketing, as this guide has argued, is a powerful tool in accelerating rural development. In many countries "marketing" is still a relatively new concept. Traditionally, ministries of agriculture have focussed on supporting production activities. Most agricultural extension officers, both at senior and at junior level, have had little training in marketing as a tool for development.
Senior ministry officers need to understand and support marketing interventions
The most senior marketing specialist in the ministry should therefore brief senior officers on marketing. In these presentations time is normally limited. The presentation needs to be well prepared and focus on key issues, such as:
the benefits of marketing;
the process;
potential marketing activities;
the planned outcome;
the resources and support required.
Ministries need to consider how they can train their staff in marketing
A marketing training course for extension officers should not be simply a forum for passing on information. To maintain interest, the courses need to be participatory.
Some of the techniques that have proven successful are:
structure a course so that the knowledge about marketing builds up, generally starting with an overview and some basic theoretical concepts;
participants should introduce themselves, and give a short presentation of their views of the marketing problems and opportunities from their own area;
product specialists can provide short lectures on the marketing of individual products;
include role play (to enable trainees to practice their new tools and knowledge in a safe environment);
if possible, organize market visits (to demonstrate the techniques of interviewing traders);
provide sources of market information (web addresses and media), visual aids/grading samples, (posters, cartoons, photographs) and contact addresses;
provide a clear list of the marketing knowledge that an extension officer needs to have and what they can do to help their farming clients;
encourage discussions and the sharing of experiences;
have daily feedback sessions so that the training course can be modified to respond to needs and complaints;
ask trainees to give a short presentation at the end of the course on what they have learnt and how they are planning to use what they have learnt in their work.
A training course like this can transform the range of support services that a ministry of agriculture can supply to farmers.
