There are certain facts about the discipline of agricultural extension which really do not require any further investigative studies. First, most public extension systems in developing countries have proved to be expensive and less efficient than intended during their launching, for several well-known reasons. Second, during the last ten plus years, extension has been subjected to vigorous and untested reform measures, which in many cases were better termed "experiments". The hasty alternate solutions in many instances did more damage than benefit. In certain parts of the world, such as in Latin America, there is a growing and somewhat bitter realization that many of those experiments have indeed failed, and with the disappearance of public extension services some time ago, the farmers are left with no one to satisfy their knowledge, information, skills and institutional needs. Surprisingly enough, some of those experiments are still continuing in some countries, and there is understandable pressure from donors on the governments to take extension reform measures. This pressure on the governments, without having viable extension alternates, has sadly resulted in further downgrading of extension services. The importance of extension is, however, once again being recognized in view of recent worldwide developments. Most of the governments in developing countries are keen to reform their extension systems, and would prefer to carry out this reform sooner than later.
While substantial resources have gone into reform experiments, one positive outcome of the exercise is that many useful lessons have been learnt. Many countries, which started some of these major reform measures many years ago, had to face several pitfalls due to lack of sufficient field-testing and validation of reform measures. They learned by doing over a period of several years. The many lessons learnt from these "senior" countries should be seriously examined by those countries, which are just embarking on some of these reforms and want to avoid unnecessary pitfalls.
A normative framework, such as this one, was needed for reviewing the national extension systems to assess the application of reform principles and interventions, and to determine how those principles and interventions may be realistically applied to all relevant aspects of any extension system. Some of these aspects are in fact prerequisites for certain reform measures which must be met before reforms can be meaningfully introduced. The main logical assumption behind the normative framework is that while reform principles and interventions remain unchanged, situations within a country and between countries are different from one another, and that therefore, the application of the principles and interventions will take on varying intensities, forms and procedures at different locations.
This framework has been developed for one main purpose: to review the present rural and agricultural extension systems of developing countries, with the main objective to reform them on the basis of the many normative principles, interventions and lessons that have been drawn from worldwide extension experiences and observations. The application of all or some of these principles and interventions to various aspects of an extension system, within the context of specific country situation, has shown promising results. These normative principles and interventions cut across all regions, but their application must be done according to the "situational context" (SC), which asks for consideration of prevailing political, institutional, economic, social, cultural, religious, agricultural, geographical, infrastructure and technological conditions. Such considerations are necessary for a realistic application of the principles and interventions, but without making too many concessions and compromises.
The NFERR, which was developed by the author of this paper and used in 2005 to conduct studies on extension covering several countries in Central America and in Burkina Faso, will help in close review of the existing rural and agricultural extension systems for the following purposes:
Determination of the extent to which these principles and interventions have been or are being applied to various aspects of extension systems for reform purposes;
Identification of the partial or total gaps in application of principles and interventions;
Based on the review and analysis of the SC, recommendations on realistic, practical, workable, inexpensive options to apply all or most of these principles and interventions to various aspects of extension.
The NFERR is optimistic, forward-looking and action-oriented in character. As such, it is not meant for in-depth studies of traditional extension systems and some obviously failed experiments in extension in order to identify their weaknesses and reasons for failures. Too much literature already exists on this subject. Valuable sources should not be used for reaching the same expected and known conclusions time and again but for the enforcement of ongoing positive efforts. In addition, several countries are already trying to apply many of the principles and interventions to their extension systems or services, and the purpose of the NFERR is to further encourage and strengthen their efforts.
The NFERR, however, should not be considered as a finished product. Because, as the process of extension reform continues and lessons continue being learnt, the NFERR will likewise be enriched through periodic updates for maximum benefit to its users. This is a continuously evolving tool.
Extension is a function and can be performed by any person or public or private institution technically qualified in the subject of extension. The view that extension is dead because most public extension systems did not work effectively may be termed shortsightedness, at best.
Extension is adult and continuing education of men and women producers who may or may not be formally educated but certainly enjoy years of practical experience in decision-making in their daily life. Farmers, throughout the world, know instantly when they see something to their advantage.
Any advice or technology recommended by extension workers to the farmers has slim chances of being widely adopted if the ingredients or pre-requisites to adopt the technology are not timely available, or too expensive to afford, or the technology is too complicated to follow, or too risky to try within limited resources of farmers. However, because of low or no adoption of such technology, poor farmers are wrongly blamed as change-resistant.
Extension cannot be effectively productive if it works alone, in isolation from the farm-to-market-chain-links (FMCL) actors and institutions.
General goal of extension in developing countries is to satisfy knowledge, skills and FMCL needs of all types of farmers in order to help them in running their farms efficiently and to become good citizens to improve their quality of life.
Extension will take different organizational structures, human expertise, strategies, approaches and methodologies to be determined by SC, which will be different in different locations, and therefore, dependence on any single organizational structure, human expertise, strategy, approach or methodology which proved promising in some other location, will not be logically right and may be counter-productive.
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Extension reform principles and interventions |
Aspects of extension systems to which particular principle or intervention may be applied |
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Participation |
Grassroots extension programme planning; National extension policy formulation; Improvement of extension organizational structure for more effectiveness; Organization of farmers for empowerment and group extension approach; Methodologies for training extension staff and farmers; Development of gender, age, culture and religion sensitive extension and training materials; Monitoring and evaluation of extension activities; Economic and social impact assessment of extension interventions; Use of indigenous communication methods, media and modern information technology tools; Preparation of research agenda by researchers; Original extension approaches and methodologies to be developed within specific situation context; Establishment of farm-to-market-chain-links |
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Gender-sensitivity |
All the aspects, mentioned above under “participation”. |
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Client-focus |
Identification of types of farmers whose extension needs are to be addressed with tailor-made extension strategies, methodologies and materials (examples: subsistence farmers, commercial farmers, farmers in HIV/AIDS-affected areas, mountain farmers, desert farmers, small islands farmers, farmers with physical disabilities, women farmers, part-time farmers, rural youth, special interest groups of growers, rural land-less poor, etc.): Grassroots extension programme planning. |
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Demand-driven |
Grassroots extension programme planning; Cost-sharing agreements between farmers and extension; Organization of special interest groups in villages; Capacity-enhancement of farmers in making demands for services; Establishment of farm-to-market-chain-links; Evaluation of extension services delivery; Accountability of extension service providers; Extension services quality control; Impact assessment of extension interventions; Government’s role in covering those technical subjects, which are of public interest, such as protection of environment and natural resources. |
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Pluralism |
Grassroots extension programme planning; Inventory of competent, experienced and willing public and private extension service providers including farmers’ associations, community organizations, and NGOs; Separation between extension financing and extension service delivery functions; Governments’ active role in co-ordination among extension service providers, control of quality of extension services, capacity-enhancement of non-public extension service providers, and impact assessment of services provided; National pluralistic extension policy formulation; Combining several communication methods; Development of several situation- and purpose-specific extension methodologies. |
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Privatization |
Organization of farmers groups and a strong lobby; Grassroots extension programme planning; Verification of the type and number of farmers willing and able to pay for extension services; Verification of the existence of a pool comprising private extension providers who are experienced, competent, well-staffed and with the mentality of not just profit-making but serving the farmers; Government’s role in separating extension financing from extension service delivery, protecting farmers’ interests, quality control of extension services, capacity-enhancement of non-public service providers, provision of free extension advice to resource-poor farmers, extension coverage of subjects of public interest such as protection of environment and natural resources, and co-ordination among various extension services providers; Capacity-enhancement of farmers in making service demand, negotiation skills, contract preparation, monitoring of services delivery, book-keeping, legal options in case of damage from private extension advice; Establishment of farm-to-market-chain-links. |
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Decentralization |
Organization of farmers’ groups; Meeting pre-requisites of decentralization for smooth transition (includes orientation to extension staff and subject-matter specialists on decentralization philosophy and transition measures, new role definition for extension and other subject-matter specialists vis-à-vis elected officials of local government, capacity-enhancement of extension staff in grassroots planning by farmers’ groups, pre-service training of elected local officials in the importance of bringing positive behavioural change among farmers through investment in extension); National government’s role in the provision of general policy direction to decentralized units and in taking measures against possible politicization and marginalization of extension under decentralization through practices such as recruitment of non-agricultural candidates for extension positions, lack of attention to career development of extension staff, and shifting of extension budget to non-extension activities. |
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Location- and purpose-specific, original extension methodologies |
Development and field-testing of the extension methodologies originally developed (not imported or imitated), based on the situational context, and which are participatory, gender-sensitive, client-focused, in-expensive, with low-cost replication and up-scaling potential, flexible enough to absorb changes in extension environment, simple to follow, emphasizing user-friendly, innovative, practical learning-by-doing educational methods, whose results could be verified, sustainability, and supported by audio-visual aids, study tours and demonstrations. |
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Staff motivation for effective performance |
Formulation of national extension policy; Salary, status, benefits and in- country and overseas career development opportunities for extension staff at least at par with other professional staff in agricultural disciplines; Sufficient operational budget; Physical facilities for field work such as mobility, equipment and access to data especially on marketing, needed for advising farmers. |
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Broader technical mandate of extension in line with global developments |
Formulation of national extension policy; Change from agricultural extension to rural and agricultural extension; Revision of pre-service education in extension; In-service training of existing staff in sustainable rural and agricultural development, post-disaster rehabilitation of farming population, alleviation of food insecurity and rural poverty, addressing special extension needs of farming population in HIV/AIDS-affected areas, sustainable rural and agricultural development, human resources development in terms of decision-making, leadership, problem-solving, effects of globalization and market liberalization on farmers. |
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Development and application of information technology (IT) tools |
Assessment of indigenous, traditional communication methods, applicable media within situational context to be combined with modern IT; Development and field-testing of IT tools in support of extension activities; Feasibility assessment of infrastructure for installation of IT tools; Capacity-enhancement of extension staff in IT; Creation of a small group of literate farmers trained in IT equipment operation and maintenance; Back-up of the use of IT tools by human resources with the objectives of getting optimum benefit without replacing extension workers; Linking to existing websites of farmers’ interest such as price information of different commodities. |
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Monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment |
Formulation of national extension policy; Grassroots extension programme planning; Organization of farmers; Establishment of farm-to-market-chain-links; Capacity-enhancement of farmers in monitoring, evaluation and socio-economic impact assessment of extension interventions; Development of necessary tools to be used by extension staff and farmers. |
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Institutional linkages |
Formulation of national extension policy; Grassroots extension programme planning; Organization of farmers; Establishment of farm-to-market-chain-links; Platform for collaboration and periodic meetings of all stakeholders including farmers, subject-matter specialists, extension, agricultural research, farm inputs agencies, marketing, agri-business, agro-processing, storage, climate institutes, transportation. |
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Others, as identified during the continued extension reform process and lessons being learnt |
To be identified as appropriate. |
The following normative TOR may be used for conducting studies on assessing extension reform situation. Slight adjustments may be needed in the TOR in line with prevailing conditions in the country of the study. The study may be conducted by an institution or by individual consultant.
Using the Normative Framework for Extension Review and Reform (NFERR), perform the following tasks:
Assess the current knowledge, skills and institutional linkage needs of the following categories of farmers:
- Small/subsistence men and women farmers
- Commercial men and women farmers
- Special farming interest organizations such as farmers’ cooperatives, crop associations and boards.
Assess if the current extension advisory system, whether public, private or mixed, is adequate to meet the identified knowledge, skills and institutional linkage needs of various categories of farmers. Describe reasons for adequacy or non-adequacy of the extension system.
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Extension problems during initial decentralization Several organizational, technical, financial and attitude problems and issues have surfaced during the process of decentralizing the extension service in the country. The budget for district extension offices has been sent to the District Development Fund, and within the District Development Committee (DDC), the Local Government Officer has been made the leader. However, the DDC is ill prepared for its supervisory role. Moreover, there is an overlap between the role of the Local Development Officer and the Regional Director of Agriculture. After the full integration of the extension service, there is the possibility that the role of the mid-level agricultural technicians might change from conventional extension work to a more market-oriented and politically influenced activities; however, the professionals do not seem to be prepared for this change at the moment. FAO. 2003. Nepal: A study on issues and problems arising from decentralization of agricultural extension services, unpublished report of a study conducted by M.K. Qamar and K.N. Pyakuryal. Rome. |
Review the extension system to what extent each extension reform principle or intervention (mentioned in the first column of the NFERR) has been applied to specific aspects of extension (mentioned in the second column of the NFERR) against each principle or intervention. Any additional specific aspect of extension, identified during the course of the study in a particular country, but missing in the second column of the NFERR, may be added.
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APEX: An extension strategy for educating farmers in population and environment issues within the context of farming practices Preparatory activities:
Field activities:
FAO. 2004. APEX: An extension strategy for educating farmers in population and environment issues within the context of farming practices (brochure), by M.K. Qamar. Rome. |
Assess government’s attitude towards reforming the current national extension system. However, irrespective of the government’s favourable or unfavourable attitude, continue the study of the existing extension system to assess whether the system does implicitly or explicitly follow any reform principle or intervention, even though it is not called as reform. The extent of the adequacy of the application may be assessed as follows:
- For convenience in assessing the application of reform principle or intervention, divide each extension aspect into various sub-components. For example, some of the sub-components of grassroots extension programme planning will be needs identification by farmers’ groups, prioritization of needs, assessment of available resources, preparation of a grassroots extension plan based on priorities, etc. Then, examine each sub-component of the aspect to see whether particular principle is applied or not, and to what extent.
- How long has the reform principle or intervention application to specific extension aspects been in operation?
- Is the application giving any benefits? If yes, mention and describe them in specific terms.
- If the application has shown any negative effects, mention and describe them in specific terms, giving whatever major political, physical, technical, social, economic, cultural, religious reasons are responsible for that.
- If the application of certain reform principles or interventions is not clear-cut but vague, then explain as such, but remaining alert for detecting any dominant trend.
Based on the close review, identify the main gaps in the application of the reform principles and interventions, i.e. various extension aspects where the application has been either totally absent or only partial.
Make realistic, doable short- medium- and long-term action recommendations for filling in the identified gaps taking into consideration existing government policy on rural and agricultural development, knowledge, skills and institutional linkage needs of farmers and organizations, and various conditions prevailing in the country.
Prepare a report on the study, containing the introduction (brief description of the country or countries studied, purpose of the study, methodology, TOR of the study, etc.), knowledge, skills and institutional linkage needs of various categories of farmers, adequacy of application of various extension reform principles and interventions within the context of the NFERR, main gaps, realistic action recommendations on filling in the reform gaps, necessary appendices.
Two months, including report preparation.
