APPENDIXES (continue)

APPENDIX D
The environmental situation of aquaculture in the Mediterranean Sea: a review

by

Doris Soto and Donatella Crosetti

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to synthesize the published information on environment and aquaculture interactions in the Mediterranean Sea in order to establish the main relevant issues which are common to this ecosystem and which can be approached with an integrated management perspective. It is relevant to know how much information is available and where is the information. It is also important to know weather there are information gaps and how to access the information for developing management approaches. As a second objective, this paper analyzes the information organized in a data base which can be updated on permanent basis and which can serve as a resource for management and dissemination of information.

METHODOLOGY

A review of the published information on aquaculture environmental issues in the Mediterranean from 1990 to present was carried out. Two searching tools, Google Scholar and ASFA (Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts) were used, and “grey” literature and other documents found in FAO libraries were reviewed. In total 168 relevant publications were found, including those in peer reviewed journals, reports, Web information, etc. The information was classified according to the country where this was produced; whenever the same study included several countries, only the information from the Mediterranean was considered. In the other cases the publication referring to aquaculture environmental impacts in more general terms and which could include the Mediterranean, was therefore classified as “international or global” . Publications were categorized according to their goals, e.g.field studies, normative/guidelines, reviews, etc.

The information obtained from publications was then correlated to the aquaculture production of countries particularly to fish production.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Environmental background conditions of the Mediterranean Sea

The marine condition of the Mediterranean is characterized by relatively warm, salty and nutrient-poor waters. Higher salinity is a result of low precipitation and high irradiance. A unique quality of the Mediterranean is its oligotrophic nature, a consequence of several factors among them being a semi-enclosed basin with a net loss of nutrients through the Gibraltar strait. On the other hand, the Mediterranean has relatively little freshwater inputs (and therefore nutrients), condition which may be even worsening due to the increasing use of freshwater in the upper basins (Duarte et al .,1999). As a consequence, the Mediterranean could also be more sensitive to climatic changes, particularly to increases in temperature along with lower precipitation.Scientific evidence shows some nutrient and phytoplankton increases particularly in the Adriatic Sea (Solic et al. ,1997) and in coastal zones of more populated areas or those where agriculture is more intensive.

However, the Mediterranean Sea has a very particular condition which makes it very different from other studied ecosystems, as pointed out by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) report (2004) the major findings of which are described in the following paragraphs. There are high temperatures (annual minimum of 12°C, with peaks of 25°C during summer) which will produce high metabolic rates affecting both the production of the farmed fish and the activity of microbial communities possibly enhancing anoxic zones bellow cages. There are very low, micro-tidal regime with tidal range less than 50 cm. Compared to other areas of aquaculture and fish cage farming, in the present case there is a much lower potential for dispersion of solute and particulate wastes, especially in enclosed bays.

Another important characteristic of the Mediterranean is its oligotrophy with low nutrients, low primary production and low phytoplankton biomass. Such conditions are typical of most Mediterranean marine ecosystems, particularly in the eastern basin, additionally low phytoplankton biomass produces high transparency and light penetration deeper in the water column (Duarte et al., 1999)

Primary production is considered to be phosphorus limited (Krom et al., 1991) as opposed to nitrogen limitation in the Atlantic and in most of the world's oceans. In this context, eutrophication could be expected more often when phosphorus (P) is released in excess. This is an important difference with the environmental impacts well studied from other aquaculture activities such as salmon farming, where mostly nitrogen has been considered. It is also a relevant issue because P tends to remain on the site and could cause faster local effects.

The biotic component of the ecosystems, i.e. the fauna and flora, is highly diverse particularly in the coastal zone and consists of a large proportion of endemic species (Tortonese,1985) with low abundance and biomass as a result of the prevailing oligotrophic conditions (Karakassis and Eleftheriou, 1997).

Another key characteristic of the Mediterranean Sea is the presence and relevance of sea grasses. Sea grasses are rooted, flowering plants that grow in the marine environment. They form dense and highly productive beds of great importance to invertebrates, fish and some birds, usually producing clusters or increased species richness and diversity. These beds could also provide protection against coastal erosion.

Such sea grass beds (e.g. Posidonia oceanica ) constitute one of the most important heterogeneity and bottom sea structure provider, giving home to many species vertebrate and invertebrate species (Hemminga and Duarte,2000). This is particularly relevant in a low productivity ecosystem such as this. Damage to sea grass beds caused by different anthropogenic effects among which aquaculture could be relevant have been noticed in the Mediterranean (Cancemi, De Falco and Pergent, 2003).

Present aquaculture situation in the Mediterranean Sea

Marine and brackishwater aquaculture production in the Mediterranean and Black seas has increased steadily since the 1980s and in 2003 reached an estimated 371 000 tonnes (FAO, Fishstat,2005; Figure 1), the largest proportion of which is represented by marine finfish (49percent;Figure 2). The main finfish species are the gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata, the European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax ) and the flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus ). Mussels (40percent), clams (7percent) and oysters (2percent) followed. Intensive fish production only started an exponential increase after 1990, Greece, Turkey, Spain and Italy being the largest producers (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Aquaculture production of species groups accounting for 98percentof total production since 1980 (FAO Fishstat,2005).

Figure 2. Finfish aquaculture production in the Mediterranean Sea (FAO Fishstat,2005).

Potential environmental impacts of aquaculture

Among the most common and well studied environmental impacts of aquaculture are:

1. excess nutrient loads to aquatic ecosystems;
2. use of chemicals which may accumulate in the ecosystem;
3. diseases transfer from aquaculture to wildlife;
4. interaction with fisheries including the effect of escaped cultured species; and
5. interactions with other uses of coastal zones.

Both types of aquaculture, finfish and bivalves produce loads of nutrient to the environment, generally bivalve culture produces proportionally more (by weight) particulate organic matter while intensive aquaculture produces both dissolved and particulate organic matter. However, intensive aquaculture particularly that of carnivorous finfish cage farming produces the largest nutrient loads to aquatic systems (Gowen and Bradbury,1987). This issue has been well explored by Uriarte and Basurco (2001) in the CIHEAM (International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies) special publication on the environmental impact assessment of Mediterranean aquaculture farms.

Furthermore, such loads have been calculated for the Mediterranean finfish aquaculture in the UNEP/MAP (United Nations Environment Programme/Mediterranean Action Plan) report (2004) where they used 110 kg of nitrogen (N) and 12 kg of phosphorus (P) as outputs per ton of fish produced. Considering that finfish (Figure 1) aquaculture production for 2003 in marine and brackish waters reached 182 000 tons (latest FAO statistics), N and P loads could have reached respectively 20 and 2.1 thousands tonnes.

A large proportion of this share is loaded on the Greek coast according to their largest proportion on finfish production, followed by Turkey and Italy. However, according to Izzo (2001) and Karakassis, Pitta and Krom (2005) such loads would be less than 1percentof the present loads due to the likely impact of agriculture and sewage. As pointed out by the UNEP/MAP (2004) report, mariculture could act as point source and could induce local eutrophication. This could be particularly relevant considering that the Mediterranean Sea is still considered rather oligotrophic.

Nutrient loading has been by far the best studied topic related with intensive fish farming both in the Mediterranean Sea (Karakassis, Pitta and Krom, 2000) and elsewhere, particularly the effects on sediments.

Environmental concerns from aquaculture: the evidence from the literature

Publications and/or reports more focused on the aquaculture-environment interactions started in 1992 when the MEDRAP (FAO Regional Project “Mediterranean Aquaculture Network” ) activities and technical reports started to be published. There was an exponential increase in 2000 and 2001 (Figure 3) and the published information reveals that scientist and other stakeholders started to carry out field evaluations of aquaculture potential impacts after 1995, being Krom et al . (1995) a promising approach to integrated aquaculture. In 1997, the Proceedings of the CIHEAM Workshop of the Network on Technology of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean (TECAM) showed the work done by Molina et al. (1997) on nutrient discharges from a marine cage farm. From 1999 several publications on cage farms appeared, based on field evaluations done in Greece, Italy and France, parallel to the development of cage culture in the Mediterranean. The sharp increase in the number of publications in 2001 is essentially due to a CIHEAM workshop and special publication on environmental impact assessment of Mediterranean aquaculture farms (Uriarte and Basurco,2001) which includes 20 publications on field studies and normative work (Figure 3).

Who produces these publications and where?

The 168 reviewed publications and 22 abstracts were produced by 69 institutions and 52publications were produced within activities of 18 networks or integrated projects usually involving more than two countries. Of the 168 publications, only 20percentdeal with the Mediterranean as a whole ecosystem; other 20percentare based in Italy, follows Greece with 14percent. Publications with a global scope although dealing with the Mediterranean represent 9 percent (Figure 4).

Figure 3. Number of publications referring to aquaculture environmental issues in the Mediterranean Sea and total aquaculture production since 1991.

Scope of Publications on Environmental issues of Mediterranean Aquaculture, per country/region

Figure 4. Geographical scope of the publications included in this study.

Total Aquaculture Prod and № of publications

Fish production and № of publications

Figure 5. Mariculture production (annual average) per country, and number of relevant publications. Total production (above) and fish production (below). Aquaculture data from FAO Fishstat 2005.

The relationship between aquaculture and the number of publications is not lineal when the comparison is done with the total aquaculture production of a country. A similar result is obtained when using only fish aquaculture (Figure 5). When using the whole aquaculture figures studies and publications efforts in Italy and Greece seem to be greater than those in other countries. Considering only fish production, Greece and Turkey appear with less published studies (considering total aquaculture or just fish production) than Italy. If we consider only field studies category, publication relevance increases in Greece and Italy. Clearly environmental effects of fish farming have been better studied in Italy and Greece but it is relatively less studied subject in Turkey where the production is quite large. However, it is possible that the available information and studies could provide enough information to extrapolate to other areas at least for the development of guidelines and regulations.

In total,87 institutions which hold experts producing the publications were found;however, only 15 institutions produced 47percentof the publications. Among them, the most relevant are:IFREMER (French Institute for the Exploration of the Seas) with several laboratories in France; the Institute of Marine Biology of Crete; FAO Regional Project MEDRAP (Mediterranean Aquaculture Network); the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research in Greece; the Department of Marine Sciences of the University of Ancona in Italy;ICRAM (Central Institute for Marine Research) in Italy;and UNEP/MAP (for more details regarding Institutions see Annex 1). On the other hand,many publications are produced in connection with or in the framework of a special project or network (Figure 7) and more often publications have been fostered by special workshops such as that carried out by CIHEAM in 2001 (Uriarte and Basurco,2001) and a Sustainable Aquaculture Workshop held in Pontignano, Italy in 2004 (Annex 2).

Figure 6. Number of publications per country and number of institutions involved. The numbers represent publications per institution.

Figure 7. Number of publications produced or fostered by networks/projects/special workshops. The full name of each appears in Annex 2. The white column represent only extended abstract publications.

Geographical coverage of field studies and evaluations in the Mediterranean

The geographical areas covered by the publications are also related to the institutions and scientists involved in the research, and obviously with the number of publications per country as explained before. In total, the references collected in the reviewed publications indicate that 39 sites or farming areas have been studied and some of them have rendered more than one publication (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Number of studied sites covered by individual publications.

Most studies only cover one site or aquaculture farm plus a control or reference point. Very few studies cover three or four sites, with one exception of a publication covering nine farms sites (Dempster et al., 2002). There is no published data on more general environmental monitoring of aquaculture activities.

Most studied sites are located in Italy, following Greece and Spain (Figure 9). Specifically the most studied aquaculture sites are in the Gulf ofGaeta in Italy, Cephalonia and Sounion islands in Greece, Gulf of La Spezia in Italy, Thau Lagoon in France and Venice Lagoon in Italy (see Annex 3, Table 2 for a reference to the studied sites). No references were found on aquaculture sites in Turkey.

Number of sites/areas studied in each country

Figure 9. Number of sites studied in each country.

Main objective of publications and most relevant results/conclusions of studies

The main objective of publications (Figure 10) focuses on descriptive studies on environmental impacts of aquaculture, while normative/guideline type publications accounted for less than 15percent. Monitoring for management is practically absent within the goals of publications therefore this kind of information is not available (at least for public access).

The largest proportion of published studies (72percent) relates to fish farming environmental effects while 13percentof these publications focus on shellfish aquaculture impacts (Figure11) despite of the more or less equal production of both types of aquaculture. However, few studies deal with different types of aquaculture in order to compare environmental impacts, indeed most publications start with the objective of evaluating fish farming effects and thus the same evaluation effort for environmental impact effects has not been applied to all types of aquaculture. On the other hand, this approach could be biased since fish farming not likely to have impacts would not be attractive for studies or if studied the absence of effects are less likely to be published. Nevertheless, undoubtedly cage fish farming especially in intensive farming could have more significant effects on the environment which goes from heavy organic matter loads to the impact of escaped fish (Pillay,1992).

Main objective of publication

Figure 10. Distribution of reviewed publications according to major goal of the document.

Figure 11. Frequency distribution of publications dealing with environmental effects of different types of aquaculture.

In the case of the Mediterranean aquaculture, fish farming is the main focus of environmental concern, yet other form of aquaculture should not be disregarded.Regarding the affecting factors within the aquaculture activity; organic matter addition is the most frequently cited. Almost 70percentof reviewed publications referred to this as the most relevant factor. Frequency of publications focusing on this and other factors is shown in Figure12, the introduction of exotic species and impacts of escapees and pathologies being the commonly cited impacts in the global literature on aquaculture environmental effects (Pillay,1992;Gowen and Bradbury,1987). “Fish aggregation” was placed as an affecting factor;however, this is rather a result of cage activities. Often this can be seen as a negative factor because it impacts on surrounding fauna or because the aggregation could facilitate the overfishing on them. On the other hand such fish aggregation around farm cages can be seen as a positive effect since fish could use extra nutrients from the feeding process in the cage farm. This remains a very controversial issue of great relevance which has been little explored elsewhere except in the Mediterranean Sea (see Dempster et al., 2002;Machias et al ., 2005). Nutrients and organic matter inputs from aquaculture could indeed contribute to increased fish biomass outside the cages, however this type of effect has to be better evaluated and further managed.

Figure 12. Frequency distribution of publications focusing on different affecting factors.

A recent experts consultation on interactions between aquaculture and fisheries in the Mediterranean has focused on markets and potential competition of products as well as on potential competition for space and negative interactions due to the use of wild seeds for aquaculture but the interactions of fish cages with wild fish has not been directly addressed (Cataudella, Massa and Crosetti, 2005). Such interaction between cage aquaculture and fisheries should be addressed in a more systematic way.

Among the most affected factors by fish aquaculture are sediments, water column and fish (fish aggregations) although most significant effects occur in sediments bellow fish cages (Figure 13) which is also a very common pattern in most published studies worldwide on fish cage farming (Karakassis, Pitta and Krom, 2000). A distinct effect is that on seagrasses which has shown to be significant in all reported cases studies in the Mediterranean as early as the study published by Pergent et al ., (1999). On the other hand, the most frequently used indicators of impacts in sediments are benthic organisms which has also shown to be the most world wide used tool to evaluate fish cage farming effects, while bacteria and biogeochemical composition of sediments are less used (Figure 14). The use of benthic organisms is also relevant because provides direct information relevant for biodiversity conservation measures.

Figure 13. Frequency distribution of affected components of the ecosystem according to results and conclusions of reviewed publications.Grey portion of the bar represents the proportion of effects detected as “significant” .

Indicators used in sediments

Figure 14. Most frequently used indicators in sediments.

IMPROVING INFORMATION AND COORDINATION FOR THE DECISION MAKING: A POTENTIAL SCOPE FOR EAM

Is aquaculture having a significant impact in the Mediterranean Sea? Karakassis, Pitta and Krom (2005) attempted to answer this question after a comprehensive review of total nutrient loads to the whole basin including that from aquaculture. The later would supply less than 1percentof the present loads while the larger bulk is apparently coming from agriculture and sewage. Such global balance for the Mediterranean Sea does not preclude the existence of local effects from aquaculture activities. In general, while potential effects of nutrient enrichment at the local level are very well covered the UNEP/MAP report (2004) and by other recent studies (Karakassis, Pitta and Krom, 2005), there is little or no information on ecosystem carrying capacity at regional and subregional levels, for example in the Adriatic Sea or along the coasts of Greece, etc. Such information is very relevant to prevent local eutrophication, hypoxic conditions, outbreak of red tides, toxic outbreaks, and significant damages to Posidonia beds, etc.

Other potential impacts are not well studied such as the effect of escaped fish and their interaction with wild species and fisheries or the potential effects of species introductions and transfers. In general there is limited or no information on the use and effects of different chemicals, such as antibiotics, pesticides, vitamins, etc., while effects are well documented elsewhere. We did not find any quantitative evaluation on the later subject in the reviewed publications for the present work even though the subject and risks are highlighted in the UNEP/MAP report (2004).

As mentioned before, there is interesting information on fish communities and population increases around fish farming (Machias et al ., 2005) which at some point could be considered a positive effect. However, the evidence is insufficient to proof increased fish production and more information needs to be provided, integrated and analyzed with an ecosystemic perspective.

There is comparatively less information on the effects of bivalve aquaculture on the Mediterranean Sea and such effects should not be underestimated. However, one of the first activities of EAM included a seminar on “Environmental aspects of shellfish culture in the Mediterranean, with special reference to monitoring” (Dubrovnik, Croatia, July 1994). This subject has been addressed in Europe (ICES, 2003) yet, the particular conditions of the Mediterranean may require a more focused approach.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The review of the published information on aquaculture environmental issues in the Mediterranean Sea indicates that the major environmental concerns relate to fish aquaculture mostly in cages or net pens. Although published information shows significant effects of fish farming on sediments, in most cases no effects are detected on the water column or on measurable eutrophication processes.

Published information on environmental issues and environmental effects in the different countries is not proportional to their aquaculture production but is rather related to few institution activities and to specific projects and/or networks which often involve more than one country. Most of the published information is concentrated in European countries while very little is available from Near East and northern Africa countries. Efforts should be made to improve this situation.

Very few studies cover more than one aquaculture site and there are no data (published) on more general monitoring programs of the environmental situation of aquaculture activities. Monitoring for management is practically absent within the goals of publications therefore this kind of information is not available. Consequently, the development of integrated monitoring programs for environmental conditions around aquaculture activities would be most relevant to evaluate both aquaculture effects beyond the local site and general environmental conditions effects on aquaculture.

Furthermore, the review of published information indicates that no carrying capacity models seem to be in place to plan and scale aquaculture growth although some models or carrying capacity approaches may be in current use or may be implemented more recently. Such approach should be strongly recommended along with some integrated coastal zone planning which guidelines appear in general normative type publications. However, this approach seems to have had limited application/implementation in the Mediterranean.

We have shown that many publications are produced in connection with or in the framework of a special project and networks; therefore, an active network connecting all countries with aquaculture production in the Mediterranean should render fruitful results regarding coordinated management of aquaculture in the Mediterranean. Most large projects are funded by the EU and therefore mainly concern European countries, efforts should be made to integrate southernMediterraneancountries in these projects.

The information collected for this publication is stored in a data base which will be available through SIPAM and will be periodically updated to facilitate the use of the information and to be used as well as an evaluation tool of new efforts and activities to improve environmental management of aquaculture in the Mediterranean such as EAM.

REFERENCES

Cancemi, G., De Falco, G. & Pergent, G. 2003. Effects of organic matter input from a fish farming facility on a Posidonia oceanica meadow Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 56: 961–968.

Cataudella, S., Massa, F.&Crosetti, D. (Eds). 2005.AdriaMed Expert Consultation “Interactions between Aquaculture and Capture Fisheries” . Studies and Reviews. General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean. No.78. Rome, FAO: 229 pp.

De Monbrison. 2004. Mediterranean marine aquaculture and environment: Identification of issues, IUCN document.

Dempster, T., Sanchez-Jerez, P., Bayle-Sempere, J.T., Giménez-Casalduero, F.,&Valle, C. 2002. Attraction of wild fish to seacage fish farms in the south-western Mediterranean Sea: spatialand short-term temporal variability. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 242:237–252.

Dimech, M., Borg, J.A. & Schembri, J.P. 2002. Changes in the structure of a Posidonia oceanica meadow and in the diversity of associated decapod, mollusc and echinoderm assemblages, resulting from inputs of waste from a marine fish farm (Malta, Central Mediterranean), Bulletin of Marine Science, 71:1309–1321.

Duarte, C.M., Agusti, S., Kennedy, H. & Vaquè, D. 1999. The Mediterranean climate as a template for Mediterranean marine ecosystems: the example of the northeast Spanish littoral. Progress in Oceanography, 44: 245–270.

EU Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament.2002. A Strategy For The Sustainable Development of European Aquaculture, Brussels, 19.9.2002 COM (2002) 511 final.

FAO. 1999. Report on the consultation on the application of article 9 of the FAO Code of conduct for Responsible Fisheries in the Mediterranean Region. Rome, Italy, 19–23 July 1999. Rapport de la Consultation sur l'application de l'article du Code de conduite pour une pêche responsable de la FAO dans la région méditerranéenne. Rome, Italie, 19–23 juillet 1999. FAO Fisheries Report/FAO rapport sur les pêches . No. 606. Rome, FAO. 208p.

FAO Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit/Unité de l'information, des données et des statistiques sur les pêches/Dependencia de Información, Datos y Estadísticas de Pesca. 2005. Aquaculture Production 2003. Production de l'aquaculture 2003. Produccíon de acuicultura 2003. FAO yearbook. Fishery statistics. Aquaculture production/FAO annuaire. Statistiques des pêches. Production de l'aquaculture/FAO anuario. Estadísticas de pesca. Producción de acuicultura. Vol.96/2. Rome/Roma, FAO. 195p.

GESAMP, 1991.Reducing environmental impacts of coastal aquaculture. Reports and Studies №47, 35 pp.

Gowen, R.J.&Bradbury, N.B. 1987. The ecological impact of salmon farming in coastal waters:areview. Oceanography and Marine Biology Reviews,25:563–575.

Hemminga, M. & Duarte, C. 2000. Seagrass Ecology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 320 pp.

ICES,2003.CM 2003/F:05 Report of the Working Group on Marine Shellfish Culture.International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer. Palægade 2–4 DK-1261 Copenhagen K, Denmark.

Izzo, G. 2001. Monitoring of Mediterranean marine eutrophication: strategy, parameters and indicators. UNEP (DEC) Report (draft) presented in Review meeting of MED-POL.

Karakassis, I. & Eleftheriou A. 1997. The continental shelf of Crete: structure of macrobenthic communities. Marine Ecology Progress series 160:185–196.

Karakassis, I., Pitta, P. &Krom, M.D. 2005. Contribution of fish farming to the nutrient loading of the Mediterranean. Scientia Marina 69:313–321.

Karakassis, I., Tsapakis, M., Hatziyanni, E., Papadopoulou, K.N. & Plaiti, W. 2000. Impact of cage farming of fish on the seabed in three Mediterranean coastal areas. ICES Journal ofMarine Science 57:1462–1471.

Krom, M.D., Ellner, S., van Rijn, J.& Neori, A. 1995. Nitrogen and phosphorus cycling and transformations in a prototype “non-polluting” integrated mariculture system, Eilat Israel. Marine ecology progress Series 118:25–36

Krom, M.D., Kress, N., Brenner, S. & Gordon, L.I. 1991. Phosphorus Limitation of Primary Productivity in the Eastern Mediterranean SeaLimnology and Oceanography, 36:424–432.

Hemminga, M.A & Duarte, C.M. 2000.Seagrass Ecology. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 298pp.

Machias, A., Karakassis, I., Giannoulaki, M., Papadopoulou, K.N., Smith, C.J.&Somarakis, S.2005. Response of demersal fish communities to the presence of fish farms. Marine Ecol Progress Series. 288:241–250.

MED-POL.2004. Mariculture in the Mediterranean. MAP technical Report Series №140. UNEP-MAP, 80pp.

Molina, L., Lopez, G., Vergara M., Robaina, L.&Fernandez-Palacios, H. 1997. Retention and discharge of nutrients from a marine cage farm in the Canary Islands. Preliminary results. Feeding tomorrow's fish. Proceedings of the Workshop of the CIHEAM Network on Technology of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean jointly organized by CIHEAM, FAO and IEO, Mazarron (Spain), 24–26 June 1996. Cahiers Options Mediterraneennes, 22:291–300.

PAP/RAC.1996. Approaches for zoning of coastal areas with reference to Mediterranean aquaculture. PAP-IO/EAM/GL.2 Split. 35p.

Pergent, G., Mendez, S., Pergent-Martini, C.&Pasqualini, V. 1999. Preliminary data on the impact of fish farming facilities on Posidonia oceanica meadows in theMediterranean. Oceanologica Acta, 22:95–107.

Pillay, T.V.R.1992. Aquaculture and the environment. John Wileyand Sons, New York. 189pp.

Solic, M., Krstulovic, N., Marasovic, I., Branovic, A., Pucher-Petkovic, T. & Vucetic, T. 1997. Analysis of the time series of planktonic communities in the Adriatic Sea: distinguishing between natural and man-induced changes. Oceanologica Acta 20:131–143.

Tortonese, E. 1985. Distribution and ecology of endemic elements in the Mediterranean fauna (Fish and echinoderms). In: Moraitou-Apostolopoulou, M. & Kiortsis V.(eds).Mediterranean Marine ecosystems. Plenum Press, New York, 57–83pp.

Uriarte, A.&Basurco, B.(Eds).2001. Environmental impact assessment of Mediterranean aquaculture farms: Proceedings of the seminar of the Network on Technology of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean, CIHEAM and FAO. In: Cahiers Options Méditerranéennes, No. 55.

Annex 1

Institutions involved in research, training or governance issues related to aquaculture and environmental interactions in the Mediterranean Sea

* Chemin de Maguelone, 34250, Palavas-les-Flots
* Laboratoire Conchylicole de Méditerrannée, Bld J.Monnet, BP 171, 34203 Sète Cedex
* Centre de Brest, BP 70, 29280 Plouzane, France

Annex 2

Workshops, networks and projects which have fostered research and/or dissemination of information

Annex 3

Studied sites in the Mediterranean and number of studies (publications) on each site

APPENDIX E
Summaries of presentations made by experts attending the meeting

Integrated aquaculture projects in the Mediterranean
Dror Angel, University of Haifa, Israel

The group headed by Dr Angel has focused on studies related to aquaculture-environment interactions in a variety of settings, including the Red Sea, the eastern Mediterranean Sea and coastal areas in northernAmerica. Relevant past and present research projects include:

• BARD (Bi-national Agricultural Research Development, USA/Israel): Use of macroalgae to solve water quality problems in intensively cultured marine fishponds.

• Israeli Agricultural Research andDevelopment: Microbial interactions and their influence on water quality in intensively managed seawater fish ponds.

• GKSS (Forschunszentrum Geesthacht Germany/Israel): Examination of environmental effects of net cage fish farming in the Gulf of Eilat (Aqaba).

• Israeli Ministry of Environment: Examining the potential of artificial reefs to reduce organic enrichment caused by commercial marine net cage fish farming in the Gulf of Aqaba.

• European Union FP4 (FourthFramework Programme): Modelling benthic disturbance and recovery in warm water mariculture.

• European Union FP5(FifthFramework Programme):BIOFAQ: BIOFiltration and AQuaculture: an evaluation of hard substrate deployment performance within mariculture developments.

• CICEET-US NOAA (Cooperative Institute for Coastal and Estuarine Environmental Technology and United States National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration): Mitigating the effects of excess nutrients in coastal waters through bivalve aquaculture and harvesting.

• National Marine Institution-US NOAA: Environmental and technical assessment of alternative shellfish production methods.

• European Union FP6 (Sixth Framework Programme): ECASA (Ecosystem Approach for Sustainable Aquaculture).

The early research related to fluctuations in water quality in intensive fishponds illustrated the speed at which the environment responds to nutrient effluents. Subsequent work, in the early and mid-1990s, on the impact of net cage farms in the Gulf of Aqaba, indicated that oligotrophic, warm water environments respond differently to organic and inorganic nutrient inputs than do colder, mesotrophic water bodies. On the basis of these findings, research was initiated on the development of various strategies to mitigate the enrichment effects associated with the fish farms, including the use of detritivorous fish, macroalgae, benthic artificial reefs and hard substrates in the water column. Concurrently with the academic research, environmental impact assessments of the fish farms were conducted by the researchers, at the request of the local regulatory agencies.

In addition to the above, Dr Angel's team has been involved in several consulting projects commissioned by a number of local and international institutions on aquaculture-environment issues. On the basis of his experience with finfish aquaculture, Dr Angel became involved in twoNorth American shellfish aquaculture projects and specifically investigating how bivalves can be used to deal with some coastal problems, such as the removal of excess nitrogen (estuarine eutrophication), and seagrass bed recovery.

The ongoing ECASA project encapsulates many of the lessons learned from European research activities on aquaculture-environment interactions and uses these to formulate a set of tools that should assist stakeholders and policy makers with respect to existing and future aquaculture developments.

CIHEAM and its role for aquaculture in the Mediterranean
Bernardo Basurco, CIHEAM, Spain

The mission of the International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (CIHEAM) is to “develop cooperation between Mediterranean countries through post-graduate training and promotion of cooperative research in the field of agriculture and natural resources”. This is achieved by providing supplementary education (economic as well as technical) and developing a spirit of international cooperation among private/public sector executive, academic-researchers and officials.

The Centre was founded at the joint initiative of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the Council of Europe on 21 May 1962 and now has thirteen member countries:Albania, Algeria, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Morocco, Portugal, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey. Other countries are in the process of joining soon.

Main CIHEAM activitiesare:

• organization of advanced courses for professionals, post-graduate specialization courses and Master of Science programmes;

• promotion and coordination of cooperative research programmes;

• organization of other cooperation activities (workshops, technical meetings, etc.);and

• preparation and distribution of technical publications.

One of the five functional areas is fisheries and aquaculture. It offers a Master programme in aquaculture and one in fisheries economics and management.Furthermore, CIHEAM has coordinated the TECAM (Technical Aspects of Mediterranean Aquaculture) and SELAM (Socio-economic and Legal Aspects of Mediterranean Aquaculture) networks in the Mediterranean under the umbrella of the FAO General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean/Committee of Aquaculture (GFCM/CAQ). Some of the relevant seminars and courses offered have been related to environmental impact assessment of aquaculture and aquaculture management.

The MAP role in the Mediterranean environment
Abderrahmen Gannoun, MAP-RAC/SPA, Tunisia

In 1975, the Mediterranean countries and the EC adopted the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) and in 1976 the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona Convention).It was amended by the Contracting Parties in 1995 and recorded as the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean. It entered into force on 9 July 2004. The Convention and six Protocols constitute what is known as the Barcelona System, the MAP's Legal Framework.

The main objectives of MAP were to assist the Mediterranean governments to assess and control marine pollution, to formulate their national environment policies, to improve the ability of governments to identify better options for alternative patterns of development and to make better rational choices for allocation of resources.The focus of MAP has gradually shifted from a sectorial approach to pollution control to integrated coastal zone planning and management as the key tool through which solutions are being sought.

It is important to make predictions on what is going to happen with aquaculture and projections of impacts for the next decade therefore is most relevant to define a strategy for the Mediterranean including clear national level planning and strategies.

The international actions to conserve the Mediterranean have also led to some innovative regional efforts, including the formation of a network of MPAs known as Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance (SPAMIs).The SPAMI List is being designed under the auspices of the Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas - RAC/SPA (of the Barcelona Convention), located in Tunis and responsible of the implementation of the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean (Barcelona, 1995).

The RAC/SPA is also responsible of the implementation of an action plan concerning species introductions and invasive species in the Mediterranean Sea adopted by the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention in 2003. This action plan deals with aquaculture as one of the most important factors of introduction of alien species into the region.

Growth of aquaculture in the Mediterranean is compatible with sustainable management of the marine ecosystem, but only if public policy and technology encourage sound practices.Guidelines for controlling the vectors of introduction into the Mediterranean of non-indigenous species and invasive marine species (via shipping and aquaculture) are being elaborated. The goal of these guidelines is to prevent further loss of biological diversity due to the deleterious effects of the intentional and unintentional introductions of alien invasive species, while encouraging environmentally sound and responsible use of the Mediterranean marine environment for aquaculture.

Coastal Zone Management in Croatia
Ivan Katavic, Directorate of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Croatia

Acoastal management plan including aquaculture is being developed in Croatia. Such plan has been developed to enhance sustainable aquaculture and also to improve public acceptance of the activity. Proper coastal zone management requires: a) data, b) cooperation, c) administrative structure, and d) infrastructural support. Natural social and economic processes have to be involved.

Many aquaculture activities have been previously located in wrong places which have caused a negative perception of the sector and reactions from the society as a whole. Such negative perception of aquaculture must be changed, particularly in those areas where tourism is an important source of development and economic income. Inadequate aquaculture siting can potentially cause environmental problems. For example, it has been a mistake to place tuna farming in sheltered areas, like for seabass and seabream; this farming practice should moved further offshore to avoid both visual effects and real environmental impacts.

To include aquaculture in a coastal management plan it is important to have an effective administrative network in place, as well as an international network with a good scientific support. As Croatian islands need more employment, it is very important to integrate aquaculture in planning and development to allow social growth without negative impacts. Extensive work has been carried out in two pilot areas and site selection criteria have been defined for different species and technologies. At the administrative level, planning and development has been carried out taking into account the requirements and relationships among coastal stakeholders and users.

The use of a zoning flowchart has been instrumental to decide suitability of sites for aquaculture with criteria such as exclusive zones or priority areas for aquaculture and/or mixed use zones. Most stakeholders participated in the definition of decision criteria for such zoning process.

As a part of the Mediterranean, the AdriaticSea is a promising aquaculture area and its development potentials have not been fully explored and realized. ACoastal Management Plan (CMP) could be the most proper tool for such development.

Aquaculture and environment interactions
Ioannis Karakassis, University of Crete, Greece

The research group headed by Mr Karakassis has been involved in several projects on aquaculture-environment interactions in the Mediterranean.

• AQUAENV: Aquatic Environments (National Sciences Greece project).

• AQCESS: Aquaculture and Coastal, Economic and Social Sustainability . Project funded by the European Union FW5 (Fifth Framework Programme) on aquaculture-environment interactions.

• BIOFAQS: BIOFiltration and AQuaculture: an evaluation of hard substrate deployment performance within mariculture developments . Project funded by the European Union FW5 (Fifth Framework Programme) on aquaculture-environment interactions.

• ECASA: An “Ecosystem Approach to Sustainable Aquaculture” is a European Union research and technology development project funded under the Sixth Framework Programme. It is the successor to several Fourth and FifthFramework Programme projects which have helped to push forward the understanding of the effects of aquaculture on the environment especially in the Mediterranean.

• MARAQUA: “Monitoring and Regulation of Marine Aquaculture” is a project funded under the European Union FAIR Programme. A concerted action to review existing information and the establishment of agreed guidelines for the monitoring and regulation of marine aquaculture.

• MedVeg: Effects of nutrient release from Mediterranean fish farms on benthic vegetation in coastal ecosystems . This is a European Union FW5 (Fifth Framework Programme) project on aquaculture-environment interactions.

• MERAMED: Development of monitoring guidelines and modelling tools for environmental effects from Mediterranean aquaculture . European UnionFW5(Fifth Framework Programme) project on aquaculture-environment interactions.

• SAMI: Synthesis of Aquaculture and Marine Ecosystem Interactions . This is an European UnionSpecific Support Action Project.

• Holding capacity : A new national (Greece) project/contract on defining ways to improve regulation on aquaculture taking environment into account.

• Contracts with local authorities.

• Contract with the Government of Cyprus to evaluate their strategy on aquaculture expansion.

The research group has also produced and published comprehensive reviews on the effects of fish cage culture on sediments. Study approaches have used comparative analysis among sites regarding sediment state and benthic organisms. A modification of the DEPOMOD model (a model used to predict solids deposition and associated benthic impact from marine cage farms) called MEROMOD, was produced for the Mediterranean under the framework of MERAMED project. Other studies have provided information on effects at different scales and have addressed complementary aspects of the environmental interactions of aquaculture.

The AQCESS project has shown that fish biomass is indeed enhanced around cages, probably as a consequence of increase in primary production stimulated by nutrient discharges. This is a very relevant issue which should be taken in consideration in both aquaculture site selection and fisheries monitoring. On the other hand, the MedVeg project has shown that there is a decline of Posidonia meadows in the vicinity of fish farms although the environmental degradation is not readily detectable by means of standard benthic monitoring.

The more recent ECASA project involves 16 research facilities from 13 countries in Europe, many from the Mediterranean. Such a large research network could be very useful for EAM. None of these studies involved countries of northern Africa and this issue should be solved in follow-up initiatives.

Monitoring programmes for environmental conditions potentially affecting aquaculture
Denis Lacroix, IFREMER, France

One of the activities of IFREMER relates with aquaculture production and development. Regarding the production of safe aquaculture the Institute is carrying out research on the threats to marineecosystems and to human health such as: anoxia, waste waters, bacterial contamination and toxic algae. The increase of algal blooms has been an obvious occurrence in the past decade and clearly there is a need for a better management of the Mediterranean.

The future of shellfish aquaculture depends on the proper management of such threats. One possible management tool is an improved monitoring and early warning system. IFREMER has implemented a sophisticated monitoring programme for some coastal lagoons and coastal areas where bivalve aquaculture takes place (www.ifremer.fr/envlit). Such monitoring programme includes surveillance of bacteria, phytoplankton, phytotoxins, water quality and some pollutants, parameters associated with the aquaculture of molluscs. Periodical reports are produced on these results for several coastal areas of France.The information also provides the possibility for time series analysis and therefore increasing the capability for early warning on events such as harmful algal blooms. It would be useful to have a project to address a wider monitoring programme covering other areas in the Mediterranean and this could be one task for the EAM.

Several bottlenecks for the development of aquaculture in the region exist ranging from competition for markets, the implementation of common standards, access to proper sites and technologies, standardization of laws and regulations, education and training. Environmental issues and impacts from aquaculture are of great concern and the potential interaction with non-government organizations (NGOs). All of these issues are being somewhat addressed by individual institutions such as IFREMER, but they should be addressed in a more regional way within the Mediterranean. However, the final challenge is not only scientific but rather the image of the sector. It is important to adequately deal with the image of farmed products among the consumers. Indeed, the fact that fish is raised by man should entail in a perception of healthy food, controlled process of rearing, welfare for animal and security for the consumer. As markets are more and more international, it is a collective responsibility for all producers to manage together such image.

Impacts of fish farming effluents on Mediterranean coast
Nuria Marbà, Institut Mediterrani d'Estudis Avançats (CSIC-UIB), Mallorca, Spain

The Institute of Advance Mediterranean Studies is carrying out several research programmes in the Mediterranean Sea, however one of the most relevant for aquaculture is the one related to sea grasses. Impacts of fish farming effluents on the Mediterranean coast are usually monitored using nutrient and chlorophyll concentrations in the water column as indicators. However, fish farms are often located in open waters where farming effluents are rapidly diluted and water column indicators remain unaffected. Conversely, particulate from fish farm effluents are deposited to the benthic sediments surrounding the cages. The shallow (0–40m) sandy bottoms of the Mediterranean coast are often colonized by the slow growing seagrass Posidonia oceanica . This seagrass is highly vulnerable to inputs of organic matter and nutrients from farming activities to the sediments it colonizes, as demonstrated by the EUfunded project MedVeg. P. oceanica shoot mortality was the highest next to the fish farms and declined rapidly to reach values close to background values around 200 m away from the farms. The drivers of P. oceanica shoot mortality in fish farming areas were total sediment, organic matter and phosphorous deposition rate. P. oceanica shoot mortality rapidly increased above thresholds deposition rates of 6gDW total sediment m^-2 d^-1, 1.5gDW organic matter m^-2 d^-1 and 0.05gP m^-2 d^-1. P. oceanica growth, in addition, revealed impacts of fish farming effluents within a radius of 800 m from the cages.

These results demonstrate that to preserve the integrity of Mediterranean coasts it is essential to regulate the inputs of organic matter and nutrients from fish farms to seagrass sediments. Regulation of inputs from farming effluents to Mediterranean sediments should be based on (1) thresholds for maximum organic matter and nutrient inputs P.oceanica could support, (2) definition a security distance between fish farms and P. oceanica meadow (i.e. 800 m), and (3) development of a model to predict seagrass decline from measured or estimated (from fish farm production and water depth) sedimentation rates below the cages. MedVeg project has provided these scientific tools to regulate farming practices in the Mediterranean, and they should be incorporated into management protocols and norms (e.g. MED-POL; Mediterranean Policies Barcelona Convention). In addition, Mediterranean aquaculture monitoring and impact assessment programmes should focus on sediments instead of water column impacts.

Interactions between aquaculture and capture fisheries
Fabio Massa, FAO AdriaMed Project, Italy

The FAO AdriaMed “Expert Consultation on the Interactions between Aquaculture and Capture Fisheries” was held in Rome (Italy), from 5 to 7 November 2003¹. The principal objective of the Expert Consultation was to explore the main issues dealing with interactions between aquaculture and capture fisheries by using the existing knowledge available at the Adriatic basin level. This initiative would represent a contribution at sub-regional level towards the establishment and implementation of the principles of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF) concerning aquaculture activities.

¹ Cataudella S., Massa, F.; Crosetti D. (eds).AdriaMed Expert Consultation “Interactions between Aquaculture and Capture Fisheries” . Studies and Reviews General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean. No.78. Rome, FAO. 2005: 229 pp.

A preliminary matrix for the identification of indicators emerged and was drafted from comments made by Adriatic experts present at the meeting. This matrix represents a first step towards the definition of a set of indicators, in order to monitor the relationships between aquaculture and capture fisheries in the Adriatic region following sustainability criteria. Moreover the Expert Consultation adopted a series of recommendations that could be directed to the Adriatic countries indicating that positive and negative interactions between aquaculture and capture fisheries must be considered in the context of integrated Coastal Zone Management (CZM). Using such approach they could facilitate better assessment and better interactions between these two sub-sectors. Likewise, national and international research cooperation programmes dealing with the interactions between aquaculture and capture fisheries both in marine and freshwater environments can be facilitated. Reports on the situation of the aquaculture sector for each participating country (Albania, Croatia, Italy, Montenegro and Slovenia) were discussed and are included in the document. They include general information (history, tradition, evolution); the characteristics of the aquaculture sector (historical statistics, species reared, methodologies and technologies applied, production data and seed availability); national policy (national plans, legislative framework, environmental impact assessment, economical feasibility) and production market (general economic indicators, export/import; national policy concerning quality control and labellingpolicy).

Interactions with the national capture fisheries are also detailed. Thematic lectures with specific reference to the Adriatic Sea regarding the market of fish products, their quality and certification systems in both cultured and captured products were illustrated and discussed. Three case studies on the interactions between aquaculture and capture fisheries were also presented:bluefin tuna, eel and shellfish culture.

Aquaculture and environment situation in Morocco
Abdellatif Orbi, Institut national de recherche halieutique, Morocco

Aquaculture production in Morocco increased from 1463 tonnes in 1994 to 2793 tonnes in 1999, and then decreased to 1538 and 1698 tonnes in 2003 and 2004, respectively. As this production represents only 0.19 percent of the total fisheries production of about 1 million tonnes per year, this activity remains a marginal one within the rich fisheries sector.

In marine finfish culture, the only rearing system practiced is the intensive system. Holding facilities vary from land-based culture units to sea cages (sea water depth20–30m;protected areas, lagoons and estuaries). Seabass and seabream are both reared in cages placed either in lagoons or in coastal waters along the Mediterranean coast.Land-based systems are not very common except for rainbow trout and carp. The culture of shellfish is still very traditional, and the culture system is dominated by bags suspended on iron structures in the intertidal zone. Some trials have been undertaken lately using long-lines in the Atlantic.

Marine aquaculture has recently received considerable attention from the Government, which aims at developing the sector by producing a quality product whilst ensuring the conservation of the environment. Such approach would allow the production of commercial value species, as well as to contribute to the recovery of some over-fished populations. This could also contribute to the conservation of coastal zones and to generate revenues and employment.

One of the main missions of the National Research Institute of Fisheries (Institut national de recherche halieutique - INRH) is to carry out research activities with the objective of contributing to the promotion of sustainable development of aquaculture. In this respect, INRH elaborates and periodically readjusts its research and development programmes in marine aquaculture depending on the needs of professionals and the administration.

The programmes achieved by INRH, in cooperation with nationals and foreign public and private institutions, deal with different aspects of applied and fundamental research. The principal themes of aquaculture research concern essentially the identification of potential sites for aquaculture, the study of their ecological aspects and rearing trials and the production of some aquaculture species, survey and monitoring of marine fish and molluscs pathologies and adequate feeding and nutrition.Research activities also include studies on the impact of aquaculture activities to the environment.

Aquaculture environment interactions: from genes to ecosystems
Marco Saroglia, Insubria University, Italy

The Department of Biotechnologies and Molecular Sciences (DBSM) of the Insubria University is rather active in the aquaculture field (www.dbsm.uninsubria.it/acqua/) and is currently conducting a series of studies on Mediterranean coastal aquaculture, on fish welfare molecular descriptors and on nutrient dynamics.

The research approach on coastal Mediterranean aquaculture includes land-based coastal facilitiesas well as on cages farms. As an example of a land-based facility, the DBSM has been conducting studies at the Castiglione della Pescaia seabass farm (Grosse to Province) which is located close to a brackishwater coastal lagoon. Bio-depuration studies are in progress and important results have been obtained regarding phyto-depuration and microbiological-environmental manipulation of the sediments in the depuration canals.

As marine cage farming is concerned, studies have been carried out in the Gulf of Gaeta, located north of Naples, where mathematic models as DEPOMOD-MERAMOD have been applied with success to forecast organic matter deposition on the seabed. The model outputs also include forecast information on the benthic organisms. This model appears to be more affordable for Mediterranean coastal applications.

The results of the molecular studies carried out at DBSM include protocols than may be applied at any fish farm in order to minimize the impacts on the receiving water bodies, through an improved fish-welfare conditions as well as feeding and nutrition strategies.

IUCN and its role for sustainable aquaculture in the Mediterranean
Francois Simard, IUCN, Spain

The mission of IUCN is “to influence, encourage, and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable” . IUCN plays a role as a global bridge between private sector, scientists, governments and NGOs.Considering its global role, there is one office in the Mediterranean (Centro de cooperación del Mediterraneo) located in Malaga, and funded by Spain. This office mostly deals with terrestrial activities, although an agreement between UICN and the Federation of European Aquaculture Producers (FEAP) has been signed regarding aquaculture production. The objectives of this agreement are:

• identification of environmental issues for the communication with public and organizations;

• promotion of concepts for sustainable development of aquaculture (criteria and indicators) and development and the management of aquaculture;

• definition of best practices of sustainable development in aquaculture (guidelines);

• development of communication strategy between environment and aquaculture sectors, with focus on the Mediterranean region.

APPENDIX F
Draft terms of references and estimated budget for the activities proposed under each EAM Working Group