Country review: Bahrain

Gary Morgan
FAO Consultant, Fishery Policy and Planning Division, Fisheries Department
September, 2004

INTRODUCTION

Bahrain is a small island state on the western side of the Gulf that separates the Arabian Peninsula and Iran and, as such, has a long and well-established history of maritime activity, including fishing.

The sea area and coastline of Bahrain that borders the Arabian Gulf is characterized by extreme meteorological and hydrological conditions with water temperatures reaching over 35° C during summer months (air temperatures of over 50°C), very high evaporation rates and high salinities. Seasonal variation in hydrological parameters is also high with water temperatures varying from around 18°C in winter to 35°C in summer. As a result, and also as a result of the small area of Bahrain’s territorial waters, a significant number of the fish species found more generally in Gulf waters utilize Bahrain’s territorial waters on a seasonal basis, often for spawning, although some major species are found in the area throughout the year. Bahrain therefore shares many of its fish stocks with other countries of the region.

All fisheries in Bahrain are artisanal in nature with no large-scale industrial fisheries being undertaken. Previous large-scale industrial shrimp fishing was banned in 1998. Recreational fishing (mainly from boats) is growing in popularity with a small charter boat fleet developing to take sport fish such as large pelagics and demersal species.

Management of fisheries in Bahrain has been undertaken since at least the 1960s although management practices continue to be relatively simple and often have a combined focus of fish stock and marine environmental protection and fishermen’s welfare and social issues. Although fisheries are insignificant from an economic point of view in Bahrain, they are often seen as being of heritage value since the early economy (pre-1960) very much depended on fishing and trading activities.

Bahrain is currently facing a number of challenges with fisheries management issues. Marine habitat destruction (particularly from land reclamation) has become a major area of concern while enforcement of fisheries regulations has been increasingly ineffective, resulting in a significant amount of illegal fishing. However, steps have recently been taken (including an artificial reef development program and the setting up of a Fisheries Enforcement Committee) which is addressing these problems and, in particular, is bringing the illegal fishing problem under control. The recreational fishing sector, while rapidly growing in popularity, is essentially unregulated and un-monitored but may be taking a significant quantity of the more important commercial fish species.

The management and rehabilitation of Bahrain’s marine environment generally, including its fish stocks therefore poses significant problems for the national management authority, a task that is not made easier by the need to share such management with regional authorities and the lack of any explicit management planning process for any fishery.

POLICY FRAMEWORK

The national authority with responsibility for fisheries management in Bahrain is the Directorate of Fisheries and Marine Resources (DFMR). The DFMR administers the basic national fisheries legislation, which is the Amiri Decree on Fisheries of 1981 and the subsequent, various Ministerial Decrees. The flavor of the Amiri decree is very much concerned with fisheries administration and overall policy objectives of fisheries management in Bahrain are not explicitly stated within this basic Law.

As general marine environmental issues become more important in addressing fisheries and fish stock management (particularly issues such as land reclamation and coral reef destruction), the DFMR is increasingly working with national environmental agencies on these problems. This is usually done through formal co-ordination mechanisms by the DFMR being represented on various inter-agency Committees.

There are currently no management plans in place for any of Bahrain’s fisheries. A previous attempt in 1994 at introducing a management planning process involved the preparation by DFMR (then called Directorate of Fisheries) of an internal paper entitled “A marine resource management plan for Bahrain: addressing user-identified priorities with the project management approach.” The overall objective stated in this plan was to minimize social conflict and a number of strategies were elaborated to address key fisheries management issues. However, this initiative was not pursued.

Some research that supports fisheries-related initiatives is undertaken by DFMR. However, because DFMR has extremely limited resources, it usually only becomes involved in basic research if information is critical, the results directly support fisheries management, and research is not being addressed by other agencies (such as universities). DFMR focuses on applied research with direct consequences for management, such as stock assessment studies, environmental monitoring and socio-economic surveys.

Dialogue between the DFMR and fishermen on fisheries management (and social) issues is well developed although few formal mechanisms exist for stakeholder comment and input into fisheries management policy and decision-making. To facilitate the informal dialogue, commercial fishermen organized a Fishermen’s Committee in 1998 to represent their views^[231]. This committee represents some, but not all commercial fishermen, and has had various meetings with DFMR officials.

Commercial fishermen also have direct access to the Director of DFMR and all above him (including the Minister). They have even occasionally sought and have been granted audience with the Amir.

Subsidization to Bahrain’s fishermen has been, and continues to be an important part of the Government’s fisheries management activities, although it is increasingly recognized that such subsidies are not appropriate in an environment where many stocks are declining. However, to reduce social conflict, the government is continuing a modest loan scheme for fishermen. Also, there are no resources available to develop ports, only to maintain them. Despite this, efforts continue to upgrade primitive vessel landing sites.

The DFMR also involves itself in the policy issues of fish export in an effort to control trade flows. There are currently export controls on fish, crabs, shrimp, lobster, cuttlefish and oysters. DFMR carries out regular checks of the local market to assess landings of these species and to make value judgments as to whether the landings are surplus to domestic consumption requirements. If there is a surplus, DFMR can issue export permits for that surplus on application. These permits are on a per shipment basis. In 1998, a total of 2 149 export permits were issued.

International fisheries issues are the responsibility of the DFMR. However, regional co-operation is weak or virtually non-existent, both on a bilateral basis and through mechanisms such as the regional fisheries commission, RECOFI. Bahrain ratified the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1985 but has not ratified the UN Fish Stocks Agreement nor the FAO Compliance Agreement.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

The basic Law that addresses fisheries management issues and provides authority to the management agency is the Amiri Decree of 1981 and its subsequent Ministerial Decrees. Although this basic fisheries Law has not been formally updated since 1981, it is, in effect, regularly updated through the mechanism of issuing additional Ministerial Decrees as needed to address specific issues. Responsibility for administration of the Amiri Decree on Fisheries, and subsequent Ministerial Decrees, lies with the DFMR.

Bahrain ratified UNCLOS at an early date and its territorial seas are defined through the UNCLOS process with marine boundaries having been established with all neighbouring States. A long-standing dispute with neighbouring Qatar over the territorial waters boundary was finally settled in 2000 in the Court of International Settlements in The Hague.

A range of other legislation impacts on fisheries management outcomes within the country with national environmental legislation (including that legislation that implements international environmental agreements) being particularly important.

Local legislation regulating coastal development and the operation of fisheries infrastructure, such as ports, markets, landing sites etc, also impacts significantly on fisheries management legislation. The coastal development legislation and processes is particularly important in impacting on fisheries resources and their management, given the extensive coastal development that is occurring in Bahrain.

STATUS OF THE FISHERIES

Total fish landings in Bahrain have more than doubled since 1980 (from 5 115 tonnes in 1980 to 11 230 tonnes in 2001) but are still modest and do not meet the total fish supply for the country. Landings peaked in 1996, at 12 940 tonnes. However, the species mix has changed significantly during this time, with declines in shrimp catches being offset by increases in the catch of crabs and finfish. Many fish species, as well as crabs, are now landed whereas in the past these species were discarded and this change in catch retention has influenced the landings mix significantly. Local landings for 2001 were composed primarily of shrimp (1 359 tonnes), rabbitfish, Siganus spp. (1 899 tonnes), and crab (2 556 tonnes). For certain preferred fish species, landings have declined over the last decade, in common with other areas of the Gulf. Landings of orange-spotted grouper for example (Epinephelus coioides, local name hamoor) peaked in 1989 at 1 077 tonnes, but fell to 300 tonnes in 1998. Landings have since recovered to 794 tonnes in 2001 although it is believed that the majority of these landings now come from outside of Bahrain’s territorial waters and that catch rates have fallen significantly.

In 2001, landings were primarily from shrimp trawls (approx. 39 percent), wire traps or ‘gargoor’ (27 percent), and fixed intertidal stake nets, or ‘haddrah’, (17.5 percent). Gillnet and hook-and-line accounted for the remainder. The fisheries of Bahrain are entirely artisanal in nature, following a 1998 prohibition on industrial trawling activities, with an estimated 2 300 fishing boats now operating in Bahrain waters. These are mainly fiberglass boats (85 percent), with the remainder being traditional wooden dhows. Most vessels are small with 71 percent being less than 25.9 ft in length and only 6 percent being more than 36.0 ft.

Prior to 1998, up to nine steel hulled fish trawlers operated in Bahraini waters. These vessels were supposed to fish in waters deeper than 20 m. However, they often trawled in shallow water areas, thereby causing conflict with other fishermen. As a result, these trawlers were banned on 1 June 1998.

The shrimp fishery is traditionally the most important fishery in Bahrain although catches have been declining in recent years from 3 565 tonnes in 1996 to 2 530 tonnes in 1998 to 1 359 tonnes in 2001. The share of the landings has also declined significantly from 25.7 percent of total landings in 1998 to 12.1 percent in 2001. Over 90 percent of the shrimp catch is of Penaeus semisulcatus. Six other shrimp species are caught, but are of minor importance. Bahrain’s shrimp fishery started in 1967, with the establishment of the Bahrain Fishing Company. Catches declined sharply in the 1978/79 season, resulting in the closure of this company. Industrial fishing was re-started in the 1980/81 shrimp season, with four steel-hulled vessels. The artisanal fishery started in 1971, and continues to this day. Although artisanal boats initially pulled trawl nets by hand, by the 1990/91 season, 90 percent of these vessels used hydraulic winches and at the present time, hydraulic winches are almost universal in the fishery.

There is no ongoing program of measuring or limiting fishing capacity in any of Bahrain’s fisheries although the number of licensed vessels is known.

There has only been limited stock assessment work on the fisheries of Bahrain and fisheries’ modelling in the 1990s indicated that the shrimp fishery could support 73 full-time boats. However, by 1998, 402 shrimp fishing licenses were issued and there are currently in excess of 400 licensed shrimp vessels, although not all of these are active.

Finfish accounted for 65.1 percent of total landings in 2001, caught using various fishing methods, including by-catch from trawling operations, gillnet, large or small wire traps (gargoor)^[232], and hook-and-line. Many boats use a combination of fishing gear. In 1998, there were 213 gillnet boats, 119 large wire trap boats, 419 small wire trap boats, and 462 boats that used both large and small wire traps. In addition, there were about 800 boats using hook-and-line, but only 22 of these were commercial boats. Also, there is a growing and uncontrolled recreational fishing sector that is in direct competition with commercial fishermen.

Landings of the more valuable finfish species, like shrimp landings, also have apparently declined in recent years, in common with other countries of the region. For example, grouper (Epinephelus spp.) annual landings dropped about 70 percent between 1989 and 1998 to 300 tonnes although they have since recovered to 794 tonnes in 2001. However, it is believed that a significant proportion of these landings now come from outside of Bahrain’s territorial waters. Increased landings of secondary species such as portunid crabs and minor finfish species have supported total fish landings. These portunid crab landings (which, in the past, were regarded as a by-catch species of shrimp fishing operations) have increased in importance, with catches rising from 1 017 tonnes in 1998 to 2 556 tonnes in 2001, representing 22.8 percent of total landings.

A summary of the characteristics of Bahrain’s three largest fisheries is shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1
Characteristics of the three largest fisheries (by volume) of Bahrain. Fisheries are Shrimp and Crab Fishery (Shrimp), Stake net or ‘hadra’ fishery (Stake) and Coastal Fish Trap Fishery (CFT)

* Estimated Value in 2002 US Dollars.

In summary, there are serious concerns for a number of Bahrain’s fish stocks including the valuable species of shrimp and grouper. Landings and catch rates of these species appear to have declined, although the relative roles of fishing and marine environmental degradation in influencing their stock abundance are not well understood. Bahrain’s total landings appear to have been maintained in recent years by the landing of previously discarded species, most notably portunid crabs. This shift in species composition and catch retention practices may mask more serious stock issues for the more important commercial species.

However, the greatest impediment to a better understanding of the status of Bahrain’s major fish stocks is the lack of a time series of basic data on issues such as fishing effort, catches (as opposed to landings), catch rates, location of catches etc., although a separate database - Bahrain Shrimp Fishery Database - was established in 1997 for the shrimp fisheries, recording data from vessel trip log sheets that are filled in by some commercial shrimp fishermen. Without these more detailed data, a definitive analysis of the status of these important fish stocks is difficult.

MANAGEMENT ACTIVITY

There are no stated national objectives or goals regarding management of any of Bahrain’s fisheries and no management plans exist for any of the country’s fisheries. Of all of Bahrain’s fisheries, the important shrimp fishery has been the subject of most management attention over the years with the finfish fishery only being lightly regulated.

As a result, there are regulations in place that specify the size of shrimp net and net mesh while a ministerial decree opens and closes the shrimp season annually which, in 2002 was a five-month closed season from March to July. There is a regional Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) effort to harmonize shrimp closed seasons to six months annually although this has met with limited success. Over the last few years, Bahrain has increased its closed season from three to five months. There is also an ongoing regional shrimp stock assessment program in which Bahrain participates.

While an assessment of the status of shrimp or fish stocks is not a requirement of management, shrimp fisheries models have indicated that the shrimp fishery can support 73 full-time boats on a sustainable basis although, in 2001, the number of licenses actually issued for shrimp fishing was around six times this figure.

All commercial shrimp (as well as other fishing vessels) need to be licensed annually. Although these fisheries regulations are in-place, compliance has been limited and illegal fishing methods are commonly being used and fishing by unlicensed vessels is a significant problem.

Industrial trawlers have been banned in Bahrain since 1998 and, at the present time, artisanal vessels carry out all shrimp fishing.

Management activity in the finfish fisheries is limited to licensing of vessels as well as some operational restrictions as to closed areas for marine reserves etc. There are no capacity limitation regulations and none of Bahrain’s fisheries are managed by output controls. Recreational fisheries, which are increasing in importance, are not subject to any management activity.

The Coast Guard and Police carry out the enforcement of management measures, although enforcement activities are limited and illegal fishing (including significant unlicensed fishing) remains a concern.

Marine environmental issues are of great concern to the Bahrain authorities, particularly since coastal land reclamation has accelerated in recent years and, as a result, coastal reefs and other habitat have been destroyed^[233]. To address this issue, an artificial reef development program has been undertaken by the DFMR and has succeeded in breeding juvenile fish in the reefs. A commercial pilot project is underway to locate artificial reefs in various areas in an effort to replace destroyed natural reef areas.

Stakeholder participation in the development of fisheries policy and management measures is through traditional discussions, often directly with the Minister or other senior Government figure. In general, these often result in compromise solutions. Such stakeholder participation is limited to nationals only, who are the vessel owners and may or may not be actively engaged in fishing. The expatriate workers on the vessels are not involved in such dialogue on management measures.

COSTS AND REVENUES OF FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

No separate data is maintained within the Bahrain’s DFMR or Coast Guard on the costs that are directly attributable to fisheries management issues. However, over the past ten years, budgets for fisheries management have certainly increased with general inflationary trends. However, in recent years, (2000-2003), the budget for fisheries issues has stagnated and may have even been declined.

A significant part of the overall budget for fisheries in Bahrain is utilized for the payment of subsidies, or the provision of subsidized services or equipment to fishers. These subsidies are often at the discretion of the Minister and are often ad hoc in response to specific requests from fishers. The budget for research services to support both fisheries and aquaculture activities is also included within the DFMR’s fisheries budget. However, much of the research is orientated towards aquaculture activities through the National Mariculture Center (NaMaC), although some stock enhancement is carried out, primarily the annual release of small numbers of fry of important commercial fish species such as rabbitfish (Siganus caniculatus) into coastal waters.

Compliance is undertaken both by the Police and by the Coast Guard, who undertake at-sea inspections. Again, no separate accounting of compliance and enforcement costs is maintained within the DFMR. At-sea enforcement by the Coast Guard is also not accounted separately since fisheries related issues are generally attended to during regular sea patrols for other purposes.

IMPLEMENTATION OF GLOBAL FISHERIES MANDATES AND INITIATIVES

Bahrain ratified the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1985 but has not ratified the UN Fish Stocks Agreement nor the UN Compliance Agreement.

Although the DFMR are aware of the content of initiatives such as the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, the provisions of this, or other initiatives, have not been incorporated into national legislation.

The implementation of the provisions of International Plans of Action related to managing fishing capacity, IUU fishing, shark management and seabird by-catch in longline fisheries has not been pursued. As a result, no national plans of action for any of these issues are incorporated into national legislation.

PARTICIPATION IN REGIONAL FISHERY BODIES

Bahrain is an active member of the Regional Commission on Fisheries (RECOFI) and participates in most of the meetings and working groups of the Commission. However, RECOFI has not yet considered any regional management arrangements.

Since there have been no regional fisheries management initiatives emanating from RECOFI. Bahrain, therefore, has not been required to incorporate regional fisheries management issues into its national legislation.

There is, however, no legal requirement within the Bahrain fisheries legislation for fisheries management issues that may be adopted by RECOFI (or other regional body) to be incorporated into national legislation.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Bahrain, although having been actively involved in managing its fisheries (particularly shrimp fisheries) since the 1960s, face significant issues because of its island-state status and the subsequent sharing of most of its fish stocks with neighbouring countries. As a result, management activity in Bahrain has not been particularly successful in leading to sustainable fish stocks and fisheries.

In addition to the problems posed by shared stocks, Bahrain’s fisheries management regime has not been able to address the important national issues of capacity limitation or marine environmental degradation in its national fisheries. Compliance with the few management regulations has also been weak because of the lack of adequate enforcement. As a result, illegal fishing is a major issue in Bahrain.

At least some of the important commercial fish stocks of Bahrain (such as shrimp and grouper) have apparently declined in recent years. It also appears as if total landings have been maintained by the retention of species that were previously discarded, particularly portunid crabs. This may have masked declines in some other, preferred, finfish species.

Environmental degradation in its coastal waters is an important issue for Bahrain, particularly the loss of coastal habitat through extensive land reclamation. Such coastal habitat destruction may have contributed to the apparent declines in commercial fish stock abundance although, like many other countries in the region, adequate data is lacking to assess these impacts.

Although Bahrain has taken some initiatives in addressing issues such as illegal fishing and rehabilitation of its coastal marine environment, many problems still remain and illegal fishing in particular remains a significant issue. The limited resources of the DFMR make addressing these problems in any meaningful way a major challenge. Even if Bahrain were able to bring its fisheries under better management, the apparent shared nature of many stocks with other countries in the region and the weakness of the regional fisheries management commission, RECOFI, may limit the effectiveness of such national action in fisheries management.

REFERENCES

Anon. Bahrain Country report to the 2^nd Meeting of the Regional Commission on Fisheries (RECOFI), Muscat, May 2003.

APPENDIX TABLES

Current Management of Marine Capture Fisheries

Use of Fishery Management Tools within the three largest fisheries

n.a: not applicable

Costs and Funding Sources of Fisheries Management within the three largest fisheries

n.a: not applicable

Compliance and Enforcement within the three largest fisheries

n.a: not applicable

Capacity Management within the three largest fisheries

n.a: not applicable