Country review: Oman

Gary Morgan
FAO Consultant, Fishery Policy and Planning Division, Fisheries Department
September 2004

INTRODUCTION

The Sultanate of Oman is situated on the south east corner of the Arabian Peninsula and borders the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Aden in the south and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast (or Batinah) coast. The two sea areas of Oman are very different in character with the southern and south-east coasts being influenced by seasonal monsoons from late August to November each year. This monsoonal activity results in extensive upwellings along the coast and a high marine productivity. By contrast, the Batinah coast is not directly influenced by these monsoons and, as a result, its marine productivity is generally lower and the species assemblages differ from those of the southern coasts. The most easterly point of Oman at Ras al-Hadd is, for many marine species, a key boundary between theses two marine areas.

Oman has traditionally been a major producer of fish in the region with exports of dried sardines, in particular, to neighboring countries being a trade that has existed since antiquity. The artisanal fisheries sector remains the largest by volume in the country and provides the main economic activity of many rural coastal regions of Oman. These traditional fisheries are also important in the cultural life of many villages with traditional management techniques (such as territorial use rights) having been developed in many areas. However, with the rapid economic development of Oman and the consequent lessening of the insularity and independence of many of the coastal communities, these traditional management methods have become less workable and a more national approach to fisheries management and development has been pursued. Within this more national approach, however, the continuing importance of regional and local community’s input into fisheries management issues is recognized.

In addition to the major artisanal fishery, Oman has also recently (since the 1980s) developed an industrial scale fishery based initially on foreign fishing agreements with several countries. However, Omani Companies have also become major participants in this industrial fishery, which is based on demersal trawling for fish and cuttlefish and longlining for large pelagic species, particularly tuna. The industrial fishery remains, however, a much smaller component of fisheries production than the artisanal fishery.

With these fisheries sectors, Oman has remained one of the few net exporters of fish and fisheries products in the region with production exceeding local demand by some 20 000-30 000 tonnes each year. The industry contributes around 54 percent to Agricultural GDP each year (around 1.1 percent to total GDP) and has been targeted by the Government as a major focus for further economic development. Most of the exported fish is as whole fresh product (most significantly to the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia) although various attempts have been made to produce processed or value-added products. Canning of tuna or sardines has not been particularly successful while value-added products produced by the largest fisheries company in Oman (the partly Government-owned Oman Fisheries Company) have been well received in export markets.

While Oman has a well-developed fisheries management infrastructure, including a significant and well-staffed management agency (The Directorate General of Fisheries Resources) and a dedicated fisheries research institute, the challenges of achieving effective management of fisheries resources in the country remain formidable. The large size of the country, the artisanal nature of most of the fisheries and the continued political importance of local tribal and regional administrations makes centralized control difficult. These difficulties also make monitoring and enforcement of fisheries regulations a major challenge and illegal fishing (including unlicensed fishing) is common. As a result, several important fish stocks have come under increasing exploitation pressure, particularly the high-valued species of rock lobster, abalone and some demersal species, and are generally considered over-exploited.

However, Oman has been, and continues to be, active in addressing its fisheries management problems and is also active in furthering regional co-operation in management. The challenges remain, however, significant.

POLICY FRAMEWORK

The national authority with responsibility for fisheries management in Oman is the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Directorate General of Fisheries Resources (DGFR). The DGFR is based in Muscat with various regional offices around the country. The DGFR is also responsible for the Marine Sciences and Fisheries Centre (MSFC) which has laboratories on the coastal outskirts of Muscat and provides the research and stock assessment background for fisheries management decisions. The DGFR also has a small research facility at Salalah in southern Oman and also administers the Youth Training Programme which is designed to train young Omanis in fishing techniques.

The DGFR administers the Marine Fishing and Living Aquatic Resources Protection Law, 1981 which is the basic fisheries legislation. This legislation, and subsequent Ministerial Decrees and objectives stated in various fisheries strategic plan, specify that the prime objectives of fisheries management in Oman are:

• Development and modernization of fisheries sector;

• Development of fisheries exports;

• Enhancement of economic diversification of the country through fisheries development;

• Development of fisheries-related industry;

• Development of aquaculture projects;

• Enhancement of the future production and value of Oman's coastal fisheries and the well being of the people and coastal communities.

The policy objectives are therefore very much development-orientated rather than conservation orientated although management measures are in place in many fisheries (see below) in an effort to ensure sustainable exploitation. This development orientation is further re-enforced by the structure of the DGFR which has major Departments of Fisheries Resources Development and Fisheries Extension, in addition to a Licensing and Surveillance Department. The DGFR also administers the Fisheries Encouragement Fund, established in 1976 which is designed to upgrade the economic, social and technical standards of the traditional fishermen, and to realize optimal utilization of fisheries. The Fund has had a significant impact on modernization of the traditional inshore fleet by supplying motors, fishing gear etc and generally upgrading the fleet.

The DGFR also administers the Fisheries Research Fund (FRF) which was established in 1991 to provide finance for fisheries research and development projects.

Although Ministerial statements are made annually on the direction for fisheries management and development, and despite the publication in the past of various 5year strategic plans for the fisheries sector^[329], these strategic plans and directions are only broadly followed, if at all. As a result, strategic planning for long term fisheries management and development is not well advanced or part of the culture of management of fisheries in Oman. There are no formal management plans for any fisheries in Oman and management decisions are generally made on an ad hoc basis to address immediate specific issues. The ability to make these ad hoc decisions is facilitated by the nature and age of the legislation and the traditional, legislated way of centralised management decision making through the issuing of Ministerial or other Decrees.

Industry participation in management processes, although minimal, is improving with the formation of regional Fisheries Committees, which are designed to act as communication mechanisms between the DGFR and the often influential Regional Governorates. However, these Committees have not yet reached the stage of development where they are able to participate significantly in fisheries management decision making. The tension between the traditional influence and involvement of local Governorates in fisheries activities and the more recent, centralised approach of the DGFR is often cited as a contributing factor to the widespread abuse of fisheries regulations in the artisanal fisheries, including the need to possess fishing licenses issued by the DGFR.

The DGFR and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries co-operates with other agencies involved in marine issues. In particular, there are three main agencies that have policy input into fisheries and marine management. These are:

• The Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Environment, which was founded in 1984 and was the first such environmental Ministry in the Arab world.

• The Ministry of Communications, Directorate General of Ports and Maritime Affairs, which is responsible for maritime pollution and response. The Directorate plays an important role in developing a legislative framework to protect the marine environment and ensuring the integration of oil spill contingency plans into oil spill surveillance, monitoring, and enforcement.

• Sultan Qaboos University, College of Fisheries which not only runs degree programs for fisheries managers and scientists but also undertakes fisheries research.

Funding for the DGFR to undertake its responsibilities comes from annual funding allocations from the Government. Revenues from fishing activities come principally from royalties and fishing license fees, particularly from the industrial fishery. In addition, 20 percent of fines levied by the Courts for illegal fishing activities is returned to the DGFR and is maintained in a separate budget item for fisheries surveillance use. The amount available from this source has, however, reduced dramatically in recent years, from approximately OR 500 000 (US$ 1.35 million) in 1999 to OR 200 000 (US$ 0.5 million) in 2001, through a reduction in violations issued. This trend has continued into 2002^[330] and hence it may be expected that the reduction in funds available from this source will continue. The Fisheries Encouragement Fund and the Fisheries Research Fund are funded and administered separately to the general budget of the DGFR.

The Government also has been involved in various aspects of industrial fishing production, marketing, processing, and export of fish and fisheries products. In 1980, the Oman National Fisheries Company (ONFC) was formed with Government assistance to purchase, distribute, and export the catches of local fishermen. It also handled fish caught by concessionaires. In 1987 the Oman Fisheries Company (OFC) was established, into which the ONFC was merged, with RO 30 million (US$ 81.5 million) being received as subscriptions from shareholders. The Government retains a shareholding in OFC.

International fisheries issues are also the responsibility of the DGFR. Oman is an active member of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission and the Regional Fisheries Commission (RECOFI)^[331]. Oman ratified the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1989 but has not ratified the UN Fish Stocks Agreement or the FAO Compliance Agreement.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

The basic fisheries law of Oman is contained within the Marine Fishing and Living Aquatic Resources Protection Law, 1981 (‘The Fisheries Law’). Executive Regulations of the Law have been subsequently issued in 1982 (Ministerial Decision No. 3/82) and in 1994 (Ministerial Decision 4/94). The law has six sections, covering definition, handling, marketing and processing, violation and penalties and general provisions. The Executive Regulations deal with Marine Fishing Licences, Licence Fees, Protection and Development of Living Aquatic Resources, Regulation of Fishing, Preservation, Transport and Marketing of Living Aquatic Resources, General Provisions and Penalties.

Other relevant legislation includes Ministerial Decision No. 136/98 of 1998 concerning Quality Control Regulations of Omani Exported Fish and Ministerial Decision No. 121/98 of 1998, concerning Conditions and Specifications of Industrial Fishing Vessels Equipped for Preservation and Handling of Fish Products. Other Ministerial Decisions have also been issued from time to time.

The Fisheries Law defines the powers of the DGFR and provides for a range of mechanisms to develop the fisheries sector. While its prime focus is fisheries development, it does contain provisions for controlling fishing activities and for protecting marine life and habitats, particularly within the Executive Regulations. The Fisheries Law and subsequent Regulations also contains the details of the administration of fisheries in Oman, including the ability to license vessels and fishermen.

The Fisheries Law does not provide for the preparation of management plans for individual fisheries but are, in essence, more development-orientated and include details on the administration of fisheries.

Although the basic Fisheries Law is a relatively old piece of legislation, it has not yet been further reviewed or revised, apart from the issue of specific Resolutions and Decrees that define details of the Fisheries Law. However, the DGFR is currently^[332] preparing a draft of revised Executive Regulations.

STATUS OF THE FISHERIES

After reaching a peak of around 168 000 tonnes in 1988, the total landings of fish by both industrial and artisanal sectors in Oman subsequently declined and have remained relatively constant since about 1990 at approximately 120 000 tonnes per annum. However, the quality of the statistics upon which these landings are based has varied considerably during the past 20 years^[333], being relatively good during the period 19891995 and less reliable both before and after that period.

Following the major fisheries resources surveys carried out in the period 1975-1976 and 1983-1984^[334] by the R/V Dr. Fridtjof Nansen and the Regional Fisheries Survey (UN Programme) in the period 1976-1979 (Kesteven et al, 1981), a further comprehensive survey of Oman’s fisheries resources was carried out at the request of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1989-90. FAO executed the fish resources assessment survey project using the R/V Rastrelliger. The survey covered demersal fish resources, small pelagic fish resources and mesopelagic resources (lanternfish). The survey covered an area of 90 000 km² and all the EEZ of the Sultanate and included all depths from 15 to 200 meter. The survey did not cover the large pelagic fish resources, sharks, crustaceans, and molluscs.

The R/V Rastrelliger survey of 1989-1990 estimated the biomass of small pelagics as 252 000 tonnes (the Fridtjof Nansen survey estimated 600 000 tonnes). The greatest abundance was found to be in Masirah - Ras al Madrakah region (189 000 tonnes), and a lesser abundance in Muscat - Ras Al-Had (9 000 tonnes). The four small pelagic species mainly found in the Omani EEZ were Indian oil sardine (Sardinella longiceps), Indian scad (Decapterus russelli), horse mackerel (Trachurus indicus) and bigeye scad (Selar crumenophtalmus).

The R/V Rastrelliger survey estimated the demersal biomass over the entire Omani continental shelf area to be 565 000 tonnes, a figure about 36 percent higher than the previous estimates from the R/V. Fridtjof Nansen survey in 1983-84. Total potential yield of all species (commercial and non-commercial) was estimated to be 126 000 tonnes, of which 67 000 tonnes constituted the potential yield of the commercial fish species and 59 000 the potential yield for the non-commercial species. Of the 11 fish families of commercial interest, the most common species were the barracudas, croakers, emperors, groupers, grunts, jacks and scads, seabreams, snappers, threadfin breams, cuttlefish and ribbon fish.

The most abundant species in the non-commercial category were the rays, lizardfish, sea catfishes, gurnards, sharks and porcupine fishes, which accounted for about 36 percent of the total biomass. All these species, except the porcupine fishes, could have some commercial market value. With regard to distribution, 17 percent of the total biomass (96 000 tonnes) was distributed in the Gulf of Oman, while 83 percent (469 000 t) was found in the Arabian Sea.

The biomass of the mesopelagic fish (lanternfish) was estimated to be 4 490 000 tonnes, (4 000 000 tonnes in the Gulf of Oman and 490 000 tonnes in the Arabian Sea). Based on various assumptions, it has been estimated that the potential annual yield of the lanternfish stock could approach that of its standing stock biomass.

Although there have been attempts at capturing and processing the large stocks of deepwater lanternfish, this has not been successful and, to date, no commercial landings have been made. In 2003, however, the Iranian fishing industry established a fishery for lanternfish in Iranian waters in the Gulf of Oman and has successfully processed these into fish meal. Such developments may open this apparently large resource in Oman to exploitation.

In addition to the small pelagic, demersal and lanternfish stocks, Oman takes significant quantities of large pelagic species and high-value species such as abalone and lobster. Tuna catches in 2001 were around 20 000 tonnes (mostly yellowfin and longtail tuna) with kingfish (Scomberomorus commersoni) catches also being a significant 2 800 tonnes.

The resource surveys that have been undertaken have enabled the Government to express significant largesse in allocating quota to industrial fishing companies in an apparent effort to stimulate the development of the industry.

Current quota allocations to all industrial fishing companies is 28 000 tonnes of demersal species for the five companies with allocated quota and 75 500 tonnes of pelagic species (i.e. large pelagics) for the 11 companies with pelagic quota, a total of 103 500 tonnes. Of these quotas, Oman Fisheries Company (a joint Government/private sector company) holds 20 000 tonnes of demersal quota and 30 000 tonnes of pelagic quota.

In 2000, catches from the industrial trawlers were 10 682 tonnes with 1 720 tonnes being taken from the industrial longline fleet.

From both fleets in 2000, 8 872 tonnes of demersal species, 2 190 tonnes of large pelagics, 497 tonnes of small pelagics, and 517 tonnes of untargeted molluscs and crustaceans (all cuttlefish) were taken. This compares with 9 796 tonnes of demersals, 1 735 tonnes of cuttlefish, 629 tonnes of small pelagics, and 569 tonnes of large pelagics in 1999.

Total catches of demersal and large pelagic species from the industrial fishery in 2000 therefore represent approximately 10.7 percent of the allocated quota. Cuttlefish and small pelagics are not included in the quota arrangements. The remaining 89.3 percent of the industrial fisheries quota was not caught.

As a result of these extremely large industrial quota allocations (near to total current fisheries production of Oman), there may be major resource sustainability issues in the future if the industrial companies increased their fishing capacity to take their allocated quota each year or otherwise attempted to dispose of their quota allocation.

There have been concerns over many years regarding the status of the stocks of the rock lobster and abalone stocks and, to a lesser extent, the demersal resources, particularly cuttlefish. Rock lobster landings have decreased substantially to approximately 350 tonnes in 2001 from levels around 2 000 tonnes per annum in the late 1980s. This dramatic decline in landings paralleled similar major declines in landings of this species in Yemen at the same time. This collapse was attributed to the widespread use of nets rather than traps to capture lobsters (resulting in many under-sized and egg-bearing animals to be taken) as well as increasing and unregulated fishing effort. Illegal entry of unregistered and unlicensed boats put further pressure on the stocks. Although landings have recovered a little in recent years, they remain 70-80 percent below earlier peaks with illegal fishing and export common. Enforcement capacity in the fishery remains inadequate although the DGFR, in recent years, has dedicated additional resources to this issue^[335].

Illegal catches of rock lobster in Oman are acknowledged to be large^[336] and the capture of undersized and egg-bearing lobsters is common. Catches outside the official two-month season of December/January each year are also common^[337].

However, the status of many of the stocks in Oman, despite several resource surveys, is uncertain, principally as a result of the lack of detailed and recent stock assessment and, more importantly, the lack of reliable statistics after about 1995. Adding to the lack of reliable landings statistics is the widespread illegal fishing and capture and illegal export of significant quantities of high-value rock lobster and other species.

The statistics collection procedures have, however, recently been upgraded and monitoring, control and surveillance activities have been improved. However, as welcome as these initiatives are, both surveillance activities (including prosecution) and the fisheries statistics collection system requires further major improvement if reliable assessments of key stocks are to be undertaken in the future.

A summary of the characteristics of the major industrial and artisanal fisheries in Oman in 2001 is given in Table 1. There are no significant recreational fisheries and no data are available.

TABLE 1
Characteristics of the three largest fisheries (by volume) in Oman

* Estimated Value in 2002 U.S. Dollars.

1. Industrial fisheries value is export value, not legislated value for calculation of royalties.

2. Maximum number of vessels operating at one time during 2002. In previous years, the number of longliners in particular was significantly greater.

3. Does not include illegal catches which have been estimated to be three times these official landings (see footnote).

MANAGEMENT ACTIVITY

With the development orientation for the fisheries sector, there is significant emphasis and budget expenditure on the provision of infrastructure facilities^[338] to the fishing This includes an innovative partnership with Oman Fisheries Company whereby OFC provides border inspectors and facilities (under the auspices of the DGFR) and in return, is permitted to retain and process any seized illegal rock lobsters industry (primarily the artisanal sector) and rather less emphasis and expenditure on management activity for the existing fisheries. As an example, during the period of the Fourth Five Year Plan (1991-95), the Fishermen’s Encouragement Fund approved 2 583 applications for boats, depth-finders, fish detection systems, communications and miscellaneous equipment. Almost 7 000 lobster pots were distributed free of charge and the DGFR’s marine workshops along the coast continued to provide technical support, such as maintenance of fishing gear and servicing of outboard engines. This activity was further developed during the next Five Year Planning Period^[339] when nine additional fishing harbors were constructed^[340], a new fisheries research laboratory was opened at Port Salalah in 1998 and the extensive support and subsidization to the artisanal fleet was continued to allow further upgrading of vessels, Government-supplied fishing gear and training of fishermen.

Management regulations, however, are in place for both the industrial and artisanal fishery, although because of inadequate staffing^[341] for monitoring, control and surveillance activities, there is widespread illegal fishing in contravention of these management regulations^[342]. These illegal activities are a particular problem in the artisanal fishery where many vessels and fishermen are unlicensed, gear size and type regulations are commonly ignored, and closed seasons (particularly for rock lobsters and abalone) widely disregarded. Illegal fishing activity is much less of a problem in the industrial fishery, partly because of the focus of MCS activities on this sector.

In general, the industrial sector, although small in comparison with the artisanal sector, is highly regulated^[343] whereas the artisanal sector is only lightly regulated. The principle regulations that are in force are:

Industrial sector

• Quota allocations for both demersal and pelagic resources^[344];

• Mesh size regulations for demersal trawlers of 210 mm in the wings and 110 mm in the cod end. Nets must be single layered;

• Area and operational restrictions^[345]. Demersal trawling is restricted to areas between longitude 56 00 E and latitude 20 00 N, or in a depth exceeding 50 m. Large pelagic fishing vessels are restricted to areas between longitude 54 00 E and latitude 42 45 N, at a distance not less than 20 nautical miles from the coast. In addition, industrial fishing vessels must avoid fishing near fishing areas reserved for artisanal fishermen. No vessel is allowed to continue fishing operations in one section for more than five consecutive days. Distance between adjacent vessels during fishing operation should be at least five nautical miles;

• No fish discarding is allowed, although, in practice, a limited amount of discarding is permitted^[346];

• The maximum duration of any fishing trip is restricted to 35 days for demersal trawlers and 60 days for longline vessels; and

• One or more surveillance officer must be deployed onboard each fishing vessel for monitoring and surveillance purposes. However, in practice, this does not occur because of staffing shortages^[347].

Artisanal fisheries

There are no regulations controlling exploitation of small pelagic, large pelagic or demersal species (included the small shrimp fishery in the Gulf of Masirah) by artisanal fishermen, apart from the requirement for licensing of both vessel and fishermen. However, by supplying fishing gear such as nets etc, the DGFR is able to indirectly control gear specifications such as mesh sizes etc^[348]. For other fisheries, the following regulations are in place:

• It is only permitted to use traps for harvesting of lobster. Nets, spears or any other fishing gear are banned;

• It is prohibited to take egg-bearing females or young lobsters with a carapace length of less than 80 mm;

• Closed seasons from February to November each year (e.g. 10 months) for rock lobster and from 15 December to 14 October for abalone.

• Prohibition on throwing of any shark part or shark waste in the sea or on shore. The handling, marketing or exporting of any shark part is also prohibited unless a licence is obtained from the competent authority.

Stakeholder participation in the development and enforcement of fisheries policy and management measures is generally minimal at national level^[349] but more important at regional and village level.

COSTS AND REVENUES OF FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

The DGFR receives an annual budget allocation from the Ministry of Finance to fund its ongoing activities of fisheries administration, development, extension, licensing and surveillance. In addition, the two major funds of the Fishermen’s Encouragement Fund (FEF) and the Fisheries Research Fund (FRF) are funded and administered separately. Infrastructure projects (such as harbour development, shore facilities etc) are funded as one-off items within the Ministry’s and the Government’s 5 year plans.

As an example, during the period 1996-2000, RO 84.1 million (US$228.5 million) was allocated to investment in industrial and traditional fishing vessels, shore facilities and transport, RO 75 million (US$203.8 million) for resources assessment and extension services, RO 25 million (US$67.9 million) for harbor construction and RO 13.9 million (US$37.8 million) for processing plants.

With the focus on identified development projects funded by central Government, the operational budget of the DGFR is limited. However, in addition to the annual budget allocation from the Ministry of Finance, the DGFR also receives funds from three other sources. First, 20 percent of fines (levied by the courts) for fisheries violations are returned to the DGFR to assist in funding fisheries surveillance activities. Secondly, the Government receives royalty payments from the industrial fishing fleet on a per kg of catch basis. Thirdly, fisheries license fees are paid directly to the DGFR although, since these are minimal and also widely ignored, the revenue from this source is small.

However, revenues from both fines and from royalties have been decreasing in recent years. Revenues from fines has reduced dramatically, from approximately OR500 000 (US$1.35 million) in 1999 to OR200 000 (US$0.5 million) in 2001, through a reduction in violations issued. This trend has continued into 2002^[350] and hence it may be expected that the reduction in funds available from this source will continue.

Likewise, revenues from royalties for industrial fishing have fallen as both catches have declined and also the species mix has changed. The fees paid for access to Oman’s resources by industrial vessels are regulated by Article 11 of the Executive Regulations. These require that the fee paid be 12 percent of the values actually fished within the allocated quota.

Values (which are generally lower than actual values) are determined by this Article to be:

• OR250 per tonne for demersal fish

• OR200 per tonne ton for large pelagics

• OR100 per tonne for small pelagics

• OR500 per tonne for untargeted molluscs and crustaceans.

As noted above, total catches of demersal and large pelagic species from the industrial fishery in 2000 were, at 12,076 tonnes, approximately 10.7 tonnes of the allocated quota. Cuttlefish and small pelagics are not included in the quota arrangements.

Royalty revenues from these catches were as shown in Table 2.

As a comparison, the calculated royalties under the same arrangements in 1995 were OR922 026. This represents a decline in royalties of over 61 per cent since 1995 and 15 percent between 1999 and 2000 alone. In addition, and contributing to the decline in royalties, is the precipitous decline in cuttlefish catches.

Because of the pressure on revenues, the DGFR’s activities in recent years have been limited to maintaining basic services.

IMPLEMENTATION OF GLOBAL FISHERIES MANDATES AND INITIATIVES

Oman ratified the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1989 but has not yet ratified the UN Fish Stocks Agreement or the UN Compliance Agreement.

Oman has introduced regulations to curb the trade in shark fins but has not yet implemented the provisions of International Plans of Action related to managing fishing capacity, IUU fishing, or seabird by-catch in longline fisheries. As a result, no national plans of action for any of these issues are incorporated into national legislation.

PARTICIPATION IN REGIONAL FISHERY BODIES

Oman is an active member of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, the Convention on the Regional Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) and the Regional Fisheries Commission (RECOFI).

National legislation does not require that regional fisheries issues are considered in either making management decisions for highly migratory and straddling stocks or in other fisheries management matters.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The fisheries sector has traditionally been, and continues to be, an important part of the economy of Oman, contributing around 1 percent of GDP with plans to increase this to 2 percent by 2020. The sector is a major employer in rural areas (directly employing over 50 000 people) where there are few other employment opportunities. The fisheries have been, and continue to be, based on significant stocks of pelagic and demersal species, including high-value species such as lobster and cuttlefish, and, as a consequence, Oman is one of the largest fish producers in the region and a net exporter of fish and fish products.

Oman has pursued a policy of developing the artisanal sector through substantial expenditure on infrastructure, direct grants, subsidies, free provision of fishing gear, training and subsidized services such as engine and vessel upgrading and repair. At the same time, it has encouraged the development of an industrial fisheries sector by allocating generous quotas of demersal and large pelagic stocks to selected companies in Oman^[351], including the part Government-owned Oman Fisheries Company. While this development thrust was being pursued, it is apparent in hindsight that the development objectives did not always match the sometimes optimistic estimates of sustainable yields from the fisheries. As an example, the industrial fisheries have been the beneficiary of Government grants of demersal and large pelagic quota totaling 103 500 tonnes (consisting of 28 000 tonnes of demersal quota and 75 500 tonnes of large pelagic quota) which is near to the total recent annual fisheries production for all species in Oman. Current industrial fisheries only take about 10 percent of their allocated quota each year before low catch rates and monsoonal weather in southern regions result in their ceasing fishing activities.

While Oman has also been active in setting up and funding infrastructure that can support fisheries management activities, such as a dedicated research institute, a statistics collection system and a monitoring, control and surveillance capability, the expenditure on such infrastructure has been low in comparison to more development-orientated activities. As a result, and despite these excellent facilities, there is insufficient information on the status of key fish stocks in Oman on which to base long-term management plans, monitoring, control and surveillance activities are under-funded and therefore not capable of adequately enforcing management regulations and basic landings and fishing capacity statistics are not as reliable as in the past.

Industrial fisheries have traditionally been heavily regulated in Oman^[352] while the much larger artisanal fisheries have been lightly regulated. This is partly a response to the difficulties of developing and enforcing any regulations in a fishery that is small-scale, is geographically widespread and, most importantly, remains more connected to regional, tribal and village level administrators than to a distant, centralized management agency in Muscat.

However, with total landings stagnating (and, for many important fisheries such as rock lobsters and cuttlefish, declining precipitously), catch rates declining and fishing effort apparently rising^[353] as a result of the increased efficiency of the artisanal fishery (a result of Government support and subsidies over several decades), the issue of effective regulation of the artisanal sector needs urgent attention. The DGFR is aware of, and is addressing, this difficult issue.

Oman possesses well documented, major resources of mesopelagic fish, with standing biomass being estimated at over 4.5 million tonnees (Scharfe, 1983). However, despite several attempts, the commercialization of these resources has proven difficult. If the technical barriers to capture and commercialization can be overcome, these resources could, potentially, add significantly to Oman’s annual fish landings.

While Oman has taken significant and important steps in addressing fisheries management policy issues, there remains much to be done. Stock assessments of the major commercial fish stocks need to be undertaken or upgraded to provide the basis for their management, monitoring, control and surveillance activities need to be upgraded to deter the presently common illegal fishing (particularly in the artisanal sector) and management of transboundary stocks (particularly the important large and small pelagic species) needs to be increasingly seen within a regional context. If these reforms in fisheries management can be achieved, the fisheries of Oman can continue to be a major contributor to the country’s economy and to regional fisheries production.

REFERENCES

Al-Kharousi, L. 2000. Fisheries monitoring, control and surveillance in the Sultanate of Oman, Country Paper 1, In FAO (2000). Report of a Regional Workshop on Fisheries Monitoring, Control and Surveillance FAO/Norway programme of assistance to developing countries for the implementation of the code of conduct for responsible fisheries. Sub-programme C: Assistance to developing countries for upgrading their capabilities in Monitoring, Control and Surveillance. (FISHCODE), op. cit.

FAO. 2000. Report of a Regional Workshop on Fisheries Monitoring, Control and Surveillance FAO/Norway programme of assistance to developing countries for the implementation of the code of conduct for responsible fisheries. Sub-programme C: Assistance to developing countries for upgrading their capabilities in Monitoring, Control, and Surveillance. (FISHCODE). GCP/INT/648/NOR: Field Report C-3 (En): 244p.

Kesteven, G.L, Nakken, O. and T. Strømme (Eds). 1981. The small pelagic and demersal fish resources of the North-West Arabian Sea. Reports on surveys with the R/V Dr. Fridtjof Nansen. Institute of Marine Research, Bergen.

Scharfe, J. 1983. Midwater trawling trials for lanternfish with R/V Dr Fridtjof Nansen in the Gulf of Oman. 9 February to 1 March 1983. FAO, FI:DP/GLO/82/001 Field document 1.

Stromme, T. 1986. The Pelagic and Demersal Fish Resources of Oman. - Results of the R/V Dr. Fridtjof Nansen Surveys in Oman 1983 - 1984. Institute of Marine Research, Bergen.

Strømme, T. and S. Tilseth. 1984. Second survey of the abundance and distribution of the fish resources off Oman. 7 November-11 December 1983. Reports on surveys with the R/V Dr Fridtjof Nansen. Institute of Marine Research, Bergen.

Vidal-Junemann, J. 1981. Yield estimates for fisheries resources in the Sultanate of Oman. FI:DP/RAB/71/278/16.

APPENDIX TABLES

Current Management of Marine Capture Fisheries in Oman

1. ‘Managed’ is taken to mean significant management intervention by Government or others. All fishermen and fishing vessels are required to be licensed but this, by itself, is not considered ‘managed’.

n.a. = not available

Use of Fishery Management Tools within the three largest fisheries in Oman

1. Catch restrictions relate to the prohibition on discarding ‘trash’ or unwanted fish.

Costs and Funding Sources of Fisheries Management within the three largest fisheries of Oman

1. License fees, and other fisheries-related revenue, are paid to the DGFR. Management funding is then sourced from the total annual budget allocations to the DGFR. There is no specific link between the revenues collected for any fishery and the budget allocation for management of that fishery.

Compliance and Enforcement within the three largest fisheries in Oman

Capacity Management within the three largest fisheries in Oman

1. Because there are few, if any, stock assessments of major fish stocks, the responses are the author’s opinions, based on published information and consensus of national and foreign scientists.