PART III
COUNTRY REPORTS

COUNTRY REVIEW PAPER
(Indonesia)

PRELIMINARY STUDY ON THE EFFECT OF FORMULATED FEED
USING FERMENTED AQUATIC WEED INGREDIENTS TO
THE GROWTH RATE OF RED TILAPIA

by

Sri Hartati Suprayitno¹ and Djati Widagdo

1. INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture in Indonesia is a means of an economic activity in which finfishes, shrimps, other aquatic animals and aquatic plants are grown to marketable size. In principle, culture occupies a certain water area for its operation and is carried out with certain artificially built facilities such as brackishwater pond (tambak), freshwater pond, cage, impounding net, raceway/ running water. The production of fry and fingerlings in hatchery is also included in fishfarming activities.

The Government of Indonesia encourages the expansion of fisheries production derived from freshwater fish culture, brackishwater mented through intensification, rehabilitation, diversification efforts whether horizontally or vertically to include the expansion of rural industries that process fishery products and to increase production.

The area under culture rose by 3.9 percent from 301 007 ha in 1979 to 377 958 ha in 1985 comprising of brackishwater ponds 238 868 ha; freshwater ponds 44 778 ha; cage culture 3 ha and paddy field fish culture 94 309 ha.

Freshwater pond culture is dominated by West Java province which produced 53 300 tons or 63.3 percent of the total fishpond culture production (80 200 tons).

Paddy field culture mainly covers East Java 38.5 percent and North Sumatra 6.1 percent with total production 55 000 tons or 87.3 percent of the total paddy field culture production (63 200 tons).

Cage culture increased from 272 tons in 1979 to 746 in 1988. Since the banning of trawl fishing in Indonesia in 1980, shrimps derived from marine capture decreased around 6 percent per annum of total marine shrimp; however, the brackishwater fish culture increased, especially for shrimp farming to counterbalance the loss of shrimp production from trawlers and boost export.

To support development of brackishwater culture fisheries, the government promoted construction and rehabilitation of irrigation canals. This is essential because the salinity of the brackishwater ponds can be controlled sufficiently.

Brackishwater fish culture was mainly contributed by West Java, Central Java and East Java which produce 57.0 percent; South Sulawesi 24.3 percent and Aceh 13.3 percent with the total of 147.8 thousand tons or 94.5 percent of the total brackishwater fish culture production.

¹ Chief, Freshwater Aquaculture Development Centre Jalan Selabintana 17, Sukabumi, Indonesia

Government efforts to increase the fish culture production is geared to obtain more advanced techniques with respect to pond construction, proper utilization of pesticides, fertilizer, artificial feeding, water management and stock manipulation. This is carried out with the aid of demonstration ponds and establishment of permanent training centres. The government also provides fish hatcheries in potential areas to supply better strains of fish/shrimp fry or breeders to farmers.

To expand fish culture as well as increase fish consumption (especially in the high populated area such as Java, Bali, NTB with level still below 10 kgs per capita) and export, production inputs such as fish/shrimp feeds is very important and should be given serious attention because it is one vital factor to support fish/shrimp growth rapidly.

Fish, like any other animal needs nutrients in the form of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals for growth, maintenance and reproduction. These nutrients can be derived from various feedstuffs which are available.

2. FEED INGREDIENTS AVAILABLE IN THE COUNTRY

Generally, there are many feedstuffs that can be used as feed for fish/shrimp. There are feedstuffs that contribute only one or two nutrients while the others contribute more than two nutrients depending on its composition. Most of the time, two or more ingredients are combined to achieve a more balanced feed. Nutrients that are of low levels in some raw materials can be increased by addition of other ingredients that contain high level of nutrients required.

However, availability can be limited if they are also utilized as food for human beings. Its use should, therefore, be discouraged not only because priority is always given for human consumption but also they are usually more expensive. Only during the time of surplus should their use as feed be considered, so it is better to buy less expensive ingredients not utilized by humans. Such ingredients are the byproducts and waste products of agriculture and industry. However, some agriculture and industrial by-products and waste products are available only in limited supply.

Shrimp feeds require higher protein requirement than fish feeds; if the quality of the feed ingredients is bad, the success of shrimp production could be jeopardized.

Other ingredients require additional processing before they can be incorporated with the feed hence, making their use in large scale feed production becomes impractical.

2.1 Feedstuffs for aquaculture use

Feed nutrients are supplied by ingredients from natural resources and from synthetic products. The following sources of protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals which are derived from raw materials of animals and vegetables in the country are as follows:

2.1.1 Legumes

Soyabean meal, soyabean flake, green peas meal, ground nut cake, by-product of tahoe (Chinese cake of soyabean).

2.1.2 Miscellaneous fodder plants

Sweet potato leaves, cassava leaves, kangkong (Ipomoea); tallas (calladium), lamtoro (Leucaena plauca), enceng gondok (water hyacinth).

2.1.3 Roots and tubers

Sweet potatoes, cassava, sago, molasses.

2.1.4 Cereals and cereal by-product

Ricebran, broken rice, corn meal, corn grit, wheat flour, sorghum.

2.1.5 Oil cakes and oil meals

Copra meals, copra oil, palm oil, corn oil, ground nut cake.

2.1.6 Feeds of animal origin

Blood meal, meat and bone meal, bone meal, shrimp meal, fish meal, earthworm meal, hydrolized feather, limestone powder, squid meal, clam powder, fish liver meal, white fish meal, etc.

2.1.7 Other feedstuffs

Vitamin sources as synthetic form are available commercially as premix, sold individually or in combination of two or more. Vitamins that are usually added to the ration are vitamins A, D, E, K and B12, choline, niacin, riboflavin, pyridoxin, vitamin, calcium, panthothenate, biotin, folacin, ascorbic and inositol. Mineral sources: Minerals are inorganic material needed by fish/shrimp. The following minerals usually added in the ration are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium, iron zinc, cobalt magnesium and iodine.

There are other ingredients that are added to feed mixture that do not contribute nutrient to the feed but they are added as drug, to improve the rate of growth or cure disease, make the pellet more stable, increase attractability and keeping quality and for other specific purposes as for sex reversal, etc. In addition, antibiotics and oxidants, anti mold agents, binder, hormones, coloring agents are also mixed with feed formulations.

2.2 Live or fresh natural feed

Generally, live feed is not used in the growout ponds. However, in the shrimp hatchery, Artemia salina and zooplankton are used as feeds for larvae rearing. Ornamental fish culture (carnivorous) such as Arwana fish (Scelerophagus sp.), are fed with little fish/ young fish (cheap fish/non-commercial fish). In tuna fishing, live fish such as anchovies are not used as feed but as fish baits. Fresh natural feeds are used in catfish culture ponds (Pangasius spp., Ophiocephalus spp.) and at the shrimp hatchery, feeds for shrimp breeders, and also in marine culture such as giant sea perch (Lates calcarifer); groupers and baronang. The following fresh natural feed usually are chopped fishes, consisting of trash fish (by-products of marine capture) and other non-commercial/cheap freshwater fish such as Mozambique tilapia, crustaceans (Mysid spp.), mollusc (clam, mussels, squid), etc.

3. FEED SUPPLIES

The raw material supplies depend on the needs/demands of feed manufacturing (poultry, cattle, fish, shrimp pellets).

Generally, the raw materials are derived from domestic product (agricultural and industrial products) and imported feedstuffs.

The availability of raw material for feed production in Indonesia is as follows:

3.1 The prospect of fish/shrimp feeds development in Indonesia is a new venture. According to government policy on fisheries, efforts to encourage export of non-oil and gas products such as fish and shrimps for export should be promoted.

In the fisheries sector, aquaculture is seen as a growth area in which among other things shrimp culture in brackishwater ponds has bright future. To expand fish/ shrimp production, there are at present in the market fish/shrimp feeds with several marks/brands either derived from domestic feed industries or imported feeds.

As to fish/shrimp feeds derived from domestic industry production, the quality available is still low especially feeds for shrimps.

The fish/shrimp feeds producers in the country are as follows:

1. Pt. Dupper-U (capacity 4 800 kg/month for fish and shrimp feeds)
2. Pt. Comfeed Ind (capacity 30 000 kg/ month for fish and shrimp feeds)
3. Pt Bukaka Agro (capacity 600 000/kg month for fish and shrimp feeds)
4. Pt. Mabar (capacity 600 000 kg/month for fish and shrimp feeds)
5. Pt. Jaka Utama Kraft (shrimp feeds)
6. Pt. Bama Indo Foodstuff (shrimp feeds)
7. Pt. Bangka Pionir (shrimp feeds)
8. Tir (shrimp feeds)
9. Pt. Charoen Phokphamd (shrimp feeds)
10. Pt. Fega Pakan Sejahtera (shrimp feeds)
11. Pt. Car Gill Indonesia (shrimp feeds)
12. Pt. Wirifa Sakti (shrimp feeds)
13. Pt. Buana Superior (shrimp feeds)

Generally, the imported feeds are only used in intensive shrimp culture and some semi-intensive operations. Almost all shrimp feeds are imported from Taiwan. There are more than 10 brands of shrimp feeds such as Tai Roun, Presiden Buana, Presiden Feed, Cin Da, Sin Ta, Fong Leng Feed, Tay San, Tung Pao, Teh Sin, V-Lang, Luxe Feed, etc.

4. FORMULATED FEEDS

There is no definite formula used for feeds because it depends on many factors such as availability and cost of ingredients, case of preparation, acceptability of pellets, effectiveness of diet and also on fish culture management technology. In traditional fish culture feeding of fish/shrimp only depends on natural food in the pond and supplement waste of household, fishfarmers which practice semi-intensive culture give a combination of fish/shrimp feeds such as pellets and natural food, while in intensive culture ponds almost 100 percent use artificial feeds/ shrimp pellets (imported feeds).

Some formulated fish/shrimp feeds which are used by fishfarmers in Indonesia are as follows:

Formulated feed used for milkfish (Chanos chanos)

Formulated feed used for shrimp (Penaeus monodon).

Formulated feed for carp (running water fish):

5. PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS

A large part of the fish culture production is done by fishfarmers whose social and economic status is low. The general production techniques used are still very traditional in general and their aquaculture management techniques depend on natural food.

The lack of knowledge of fish/shrimp feeds and feeding such as nutrient requirement for fish/shrimp, selection of ingredients and source of raw material is quite difficult due to inadequate supply. Most of formulation used presently by fish producers are based on experience or other successful fishfarmers, so there is no definite guide to follow on how much protein and energy should be added to the ration. Most formulated feeds available do not result to optimum production.

Availability of feedstuff is limited, however, since they are also utilized as food for human being, their use for fish food becomes very expensive. It is better to buy less expensive ingredients not utilized for human consumption such as by-products and waste products of agriculture and industry. On the other hand, quality is usually of low grade. Up to now the feedstuffs and feeds are still imported to augment the local supply.

Quality control of imported ingredients, as well as formulated finished products (pellets), plant sanitation, pest control, storage, etc. need to be carried out. Research and field tests on formulated feeds are still insufficient because of lack of facilities, equipment and expertise in fish nutrition confronts the aquaculture industry.

The availability of data and information on feedstuffs and feeds for fish/shrimp is still scarce. Intersectoral coordination of work in this field is not easy to attain.

6. RECOMMENDATION

More research work is needed on the formulation of shrimp and finfish feeds in order to develop the appropriate high quality but cheap feeds. Training for staff, field/ extension workers and fishfarmers should be organized to acquire the information, knowledge, skill on feeds and feed formulation using locally available materials.

Quality control programme on feedstuffs/ feeds such as raw material control, finished product quality, storage, pest and sanitation control are essential to the expansion of aquaculture development. A cooperative programme on this should be implemented.

Study and survey of feedstuffs/feeds availability in the country should be done to support the fish/shrimp feeds formulation and improve their production to upgrade the quality and quantity of aquaculture products particularly shrimps and finfish.

REFERENCES

Cruz, E.M. 1986 Training manual on fish feeds and feeding. DGF/USAID.

Anonymous. 1985 Fisheries statistics of Indonesia, 1985. DGF.

Anonymous. 1987 Fisheries input production for aquaculture, DGF.

Anonymous. 1986 International Trade Statistics of Fisheries Commodities, 1986. DGF/BPS.

Anonymous. 1987 Luas Panen Rata-rata hasin dan Produksi dari Palawija di Indonesia. Dirtjen Pertanian Tanaman Pangan.

Anonymous. 1984 Pedoman Budidaya Tambak. DGF.

Annex 1
Shrimp feed composition and price

Annex 2
Fisheries production by sub-sector of fishers 1979–1985 (metric ton)

Annex 3
Area under culture by type of fish culture 1979-1985 (ha)

(Fisheries Statistics of Indonesia, 1985, DGF published 1987)

Annex 4
Import volume of fish meals and fish oils 1982–1986 (metric ton)

(BPS/National Statistic Bureau, 1986)

Annex 5
Production of rice, corn, soyabean, ground nut, cassava, sweet potatoes, green peas 1985-1987 (metric ton)

(D.G. of Food Crops, 1987)

COUNTRY REVIEW PAPER
(Malaysia)

STATUS OF SHRIMP AND FINFISH FEEDS IN MALAYSIA

by

Ismail Abu Hassan, Hambal Hj. Hanafi,
Che Utama B. Che Musa¹ and S. Pathmasothy
Department of Fisheries, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

Feed is one of the factors which plays an important role in determining the successful development of the aquaculture industry. In marine shrimp and finfish culture it has been proven that more than 50 percent of cost of production goes to the feed for the cultured animals.

This paper discussed briefly the present status of feeds for marine shrimp and finfish, the major issues faced by the feedmilling industry and the potential development of the feed industry.

It also identifies some of the major steps needed to be taken by both the government and private sectors in order to ensure the development of marine shrimp and finfish feed industry.

1. INTRODUCTION

The development of marine shrimp and finfish feed in Malaysia has been rather slow until 1980 due to the lack of expertise in the field, absence of suitable feed processing machineries and also the absence of appropriate local technology for commercial production of either dry, sinking or floating-type or moist pelleted feed. Even though some feedmills has realized it as being another product in their industry but due to the lack of local demand and knowledge in this field and aquaculture generally it has been delayed until 1983.

The Department of Fisheries first acknowledge the importance of formulated feed when it established the Feed Section at the Fisheries Research Institute in Glugor in 1976. With the establishment of the Research Branch, Brackishwater Aquaculture Research Centre in Gelang Patah, Johor in 1979, the Feed Section has been expanded further to cover also the pond grow-out feed for marine fish and shrimp. The Feed Section in Glugor then place greater emphasis on larval and postlarval feed. However, in the case of freshwater fish, research and production of fish, feeds began in 1975 at the Freshwater Fish Research Station, Batu Berendam, Melaka.

To date there are about 563 shrimp farms making up a total area of 475.77 hectares developed in Peninsular Malaysia (Fisheries Statistics, 1986). Most of these farms are culturing tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) and white shrimp (Penaeus merguiensis). The estimated feed requirement from them is expected to be about 1 903 metric tons that is basing on production figure of 2.0 tons per hectare per year. Most of the fry used came from the hatcheries. There are about 30 marine shrimp hatcheries operating in the country, producing an estimated 400 million shrimp fry a year. Assuming about 7 kg of feed is required to produce one million shrimp postlarva (PL 25), therefore, the total estimated feed demand is about 2.8 metric tons a year.

As for the fish, the annual production from cage culture is about 944 metric tons (Fisheries Statistics, 1986) which uses trash fish as the main feed. With the feed conversion ratio of 6 (Ramli, 1986) the total requirement of trash fish is estimated to be 5 664 metric tons. In the case of freshwater fish production, the potential feed requirements based on acreage and feed conversion of 2, amounted to 10 000 to 15 000 tons.

¹ Fisheries Officer (Research), National Prawn Fry Production and Research Centre, Kedah, Malaysia

It has been identified that Malaysia has about 114 000 hectares of undeveloped land suitable to be developed into pond area for the purpose of marine shrimp culture of which 21 000 hectares is anticipated to be developed by the year 2000 (Ubaidillah, 1985). Assuming an average production of 2.0 tons per hectare per year, a rather pessimistic figure, the total production in the year 2000 is expected to be about 42 000 metric tons of marine shrimp alone. Assuming a feed conversion ratio of 2.0, the amount of shrimp feed required will be approximately 84 000 metric tons. This is of course basing on rather ambitious plan and anticipating that the targeted acreage of 21 000 hectares can be achieved by the year 2000. However, the present rate of shrimp pond development has been worked out only to be about 11 percent annually, and thus the expected acreage of shrimp ponds in the year 2000 will be about 2 051 hectares producing about 24 612 metric tons of shrimps, assuming the production of 6 tons per hectare per crop or 12 tons per hectare per year (Chuah, 1988). With FCR of 2.0, the estimated feed demand is 49 224 metric tons annually, i.e. half of that estimated earlier. It is quite safe to project the shrimp feed demand in the year 2000 will fall within 49 000 and 84 000 metric tons.

About 3 600 hectares of suitable area for cage culture development (ADB, 1985) has been identified. This has the potential of producing about 266 000 metric tons of fish. Considering the feed conversion ratio of 6.0 for fish (Ramli, 1986), the total amount of feed (trash fish) is anticipated to be about 1 596 000 metric tons. The utilization of traditional feeds, agricultural by-products and waste from food processing plant still play a major role in freshwater fish culture compared to formulated feeds. However, the utilization of formulated feed is increasing and is expected to further increase.

2. FEED INGREDIENTS

In the development of shrimp/fish formulated feed several factors have to be taken into consideration. These include availability, quality, attractability and acceptability by/to the shrimp/fish and also the cost of the ingredients. It is, therefore, advisable for the feedmillers or even farmers who intend to formulate their own feed, to make a survey of the available feed ingredients and their cost before attempting to formulate and produce a diet.

2.1 Price and availability

The ingredients chosen should be readily obtainable and at a reasonable price so that the whole process of production is continuous and economical. Statistical data (Ministry of Agriculture, 1985) shows that a majority of the raw ingredients has to be imported due to various reasons for example, local supply is too little or irregular to meet the demand, quality of the local ingredients even if available do not meet the standard, price competitiveness, or unavailability of the ingredients locally. A survey conducted by FAO (Chow, 1981) showed that 80 percent, in term of quantity, of the raw ingredients have been imported.

2.2 Quality of raw material

The quality of the available local ingredients most of the time do not meet the standard demanded by the feedmillers. For example, fish meal which is one of the main ingredient in the formulated feed, produced locally have been shown to contain only 54.2 percent. Crude protein and very high percentage of ash, 21.0 percent. Table 1 gives a comparison of both crude protein and ash level between the various fish meals produced by different countries. Proximate analysis of the raw ingredients which are produced locally or imported should, therefore, be performed from time to time and randomly in order to confirm the declared composition.

The freshness and freedom from contaminants of the ingredients must be assessed for each batch. The physical property of feedstuff must be also considered since palatability, durability and water stability are very critical to the preparation of dry shrimp feed. Any negative organoleptic characteristic of raw materials should also be considered before the ingredients are incorporated into the diet.

Table 1. The approximate analysis data of fish from different countries

The locally available ingredients regularly utilized in formulating shrimp and fish feed are wheat bran, soybean meal, fish meal, distillery and brewery yeasts and shrimp waste. Whereas, the main imported items are maize, meat meal, fish meal, squid meal and shrimp meal. Vitamins and fish oils which require high technology industries still need to be imported.

Some of the commonly available feed ingredients and feedstuff both local and imported, used in making shrimp/fish feed and their respective process are listed in Tables 2 and 3.

3. FEED SUPPLIES

3.1 Raw materials supply

The availability of raw ingredients for the manufacture of feeds both for shrimp and finfish has been identified as one of the main constraints faced by the feedmillers. It has been mentioned earlier that the local ingredients, e.g. fish meal do not meet the standard required by them, i.e. in terms of quality and quantity. As it has been realized that shrimp and finfish diet demands high quality ingredients there is, therefore, a need to import some of them. Table 4 gives a list of some of the imported raw materials used in the manufacturing of shrimp feeds.

Table 2. Ingredient sources and cost in Malaysia

Table 3. Feedstuff utilized as fish feed

The supply of raw ingredient thus at this moment needs to be imported, except for a few which is as indicated in Table 2. In 1985 alone, about 44 types of ingredients used in feedstuffs is imported and the total quantity imported is about 418 820 metric tons (without taking maize into consideration) worth about MR$20.2 millions (Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia, 1985). Table 4 shows some of the imported raw ingredients that are also used in the formulation of finfish and shrimp feed (besides other animal feeds, their volume and value, respectively). Table 4 also shows that there are five major commodities being imported in big quantity, i.e. maize (908 874 tons), soybean (148 512 tons), ricebran (77 196 tons), fish meal (61 138 tons) and wheat bran and pollard (50 932 tons) of which soybean and fish meal contribute quite a significant amount to the foreign exchange value.

Table 4. List of some of the raw materials imported, quantity and their value
(Ministry of Agriculture, 1985)

N. B. + 1984 data

3.3 Types of formulated feed

The feeds manufactured presently are in three forms, i.e. with respect to the age and size of the cultured shrimp and fish. These are starter (crumbles), grower (2.5 mm) and finisher (2.5 mm). The starter in the form of crumbles is utilized during the nursery which normally extended for a month. It is usually formulated with a higher protein level compared to the other two, i.e. grower and finisher. From then onwards grower pellet is used up to the third month before changing to finisher which is normally fed until harvest. The protein content in the finisher is usually much lower when compared to both grower and starter. Table 5 lists out all the locally available commercial shrimp feed and the results of their proximate analysis.

Table 5. Result of proximate analysis of locally available commercial shrimp feed

3.4 Live or fresh natural feed

In both shrimp and finfish culture, natural feed still plays an important role especially in supplementing some of the essential microcomponents required during their early stage which might still be lacking in the formulated feed. However, the dependence on natural food has shown more of disadvantages than good, for example, at the hatchery larval culture, it is realized that the use of natural food involved large space, laborious and time consuming. Research should, therefore, be geared to determine alternative food sources such as formulated feed to replace the natural food. For example, recent studies has shown that microencapsulated diet can be used to replace live food for feeding all phases of the shrimp larvae.

4. FORMULATED FEEDS

The need to introduce formulated feeds in aquaculture arises due to a few factors. The quality of feed given to the cultured animals can be greatly enhanced by providing a well balanced compacted diet in the form of pellets. The introduction of formulated feed will also make provision for the incorporation of various additives such as growth promoter, health stabilizer, colouring agent and maturation enhancing substances required in improving the quality and quantity of the final product. With the formulated feed in the form of pellets, the feed preparation and feeding management will be more efficient. It has been proven that with the usage of formulated diets, the final production and profit margin has been significantly increased.

The nutrient requirements for marine shrimp varies with different species. Recent studies carried out at the Brackishwater Aquaculture Research Center, Department of Fisheries on the nutrition of tiger prawn has shown that with the incorporation of about 35–45 percent protein, 3.5 percent fat, 4.0 percent fiber and less than 16 percent ash in the diet, the survival and growth rate of the species can be increased to a maximum of 8 tons per hectare per crop (extrapolated). Research works at the centre also showed the significant use of growth promoter and colouring agents in the diets.

In finfish culture, where feeding with formulated feed is still rarely practiced, the use of trash fish is common. In 1986, the Brackishwater Aquaculture Research Centre introduces its first formulated pellet feed for the seabass and grouper at the nursery and grow-out stages. The diets have been shown to have FCR of 2.1 and 2.5, respectively. It has been shown that with the use of a colouring agent, the colour of the seabass can be turned to golden yellow. Although utilized in small amount, formulated feeds for freshwater fish is available in various sizes and form that is flooding or sinking.

In the case of larval feed for marine shrimp, there are various types of formulated feeds available in the country such as Nippai, President, Yeastar, Toppal, Frippak, High Shimam, Klyowa-Hahho and etc. In most cases these feeds are used as supplementary. For the freshwater prawn larvae, besides the commonly used egg custard, the formulated feed is also available. The Malaysian National Prawn Fry Production and Research Centre, has developed its own formulated feed for Macrobrachium larvae.

5. PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS IN MARINE SHRIMP AND FINFISH FEED DEVELOPMENT

The development of shrimp and finfish feeds in Malaysia has been hindered by numerous factors.

The unavailability of sufficient and good quality raw ingredients has been one of the major problems in promoting the production of local shrimp and finfish feeds. The locally available ingredients have been found unable to supply the high and good quality proteins as required by the cultured animals and thus, the dependence on importation of raw ingredients still persists. It is, therefore, necessary to upgrade the quality of some of the locally available raw materials such as fish meal to cater for this market. Aside from that, research work is being geared to find alternatives or substitutes for those that otherwise have to be imported.

The second major problem faced by the industry is the negative acceptance of the local fishfarmer to formulated pellets, specially those that are being produced locally. Though to some extent the shrimp and finfish culture industry has been well developed in Malaysia, the latter still uses trash fish as the main source of food for the cultured fish. Attempts to introduce the formulated diets are often met with failures due normally to their higher cost and the little exposure of the fishfarmers themselves to finfish feed pellets. On the other hand, the importance of formulated feeds in shrimp culture has been realized and the demand for them has increased over the years.

Technology-wise, the feed industry in fact is just utilizing the same technique for the manufacturing of poultry and pig pellets. Slight modifications on the processes and existing machineries and sometimes the need to have special machineries often discourage the present existing feedmills to also produce aquaculture feeds in their production line.

6. CONCLUSION

There is, therefore, a great potential for the development of marine shrimp and finfish feeds in Malaysia. The demand for the formulated feeds is expected to increase from 1 900 metric tons in 1987 to about 41 000–84 000 metric tons annually in the near future.

It has also been identified that one of the major constraints in increasing the local production of marine shrimp and finfish feeds is the insufficient supply or non-availability of good quality raw ingredients. There is, therefore, the need to both increase the output and quality of the raw ingredients especially from the local suppliers. At the same time, greater emphasis should be given in research works both by the government and private sectors to find alternatives or substitutes to the imported ingredients.

REFERENCES

Annual Fisheries Statistics. 1986 Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia.

Aquaculture Development Project. 1985 Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia.

Chow, K.W. 1981 Diet development for seabass, grouper and penaeid shrimp culture in Malaysia. Aquaculture Development and Coordination Programme, Fisheries Department, FAO, Rome.

Chuah, T.T. and Md. Nafiah b. Md. Yasin. 1988 Intensive culture of tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon at the Brackishwater Aquaculture Research Centre, Gelang Patah. Fisheries Research Institute Seminar, 1988. Penang, Malaysia.

Perdagangan Import dan Eksport Makanan dan Hasil Pertanian. 1985 Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia.

Ramli, K. and H. Hambal. 1986 Pond culture of seabass (Lates calcarifer). ACIAR Workshop, Darwin, Australia.

Ubaidillah, T.A.K. 1985 Aquaculture development strategy and programme. Report on Aquaculture Conference, Johor Bahru, Malaysia.